DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Potential Implications and Applications of Terror Management Theory for Library and Information Science

  • Hollister, Jonathan M. (Department of Library, Archives, & Information Studies, Pusan National University) ;
  • Lee, Jisue (Department of Library & Information Science, Chonnam National University) ;
  • Elkins, Aaron J. (School of Library & Information Studies, Texas Woman's University) ;
  • Latham, Don (School of Information, Florida State University)
  • Received : 2020.10.29
  • Accepted : 2020.11.14
  • Published : 2020.11.30

Abstract

Mental health experts warn the combination of overwhelming amounts of information, economic instability, political discontent, social injustice, and the high infection and death rates of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic are negatively impacting mental health in ways that may worsen the pandemic and intensify our primal fear of death. Terror Management Theory (TMT) argues that self-esteem and cultural worldviews serve as defenses against the terror of our own mortality. This theory anchor paper introduces TMT to Library and Information Science (LIS) via a selected literature review on TMT's use in the field of Psychology and an extensive discussion on the conceptual connections to LIS supported with empirical research from related disciplines and contexts. The implications, applications, and usefulness of TMT for LIS research, education, and practice are discussed in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic and other contexts, and a research agenda is proposed.

Keywords

References

  1. Kim, E. J. 2019. "A study on seniors' political communication via SNS: Case of KaKaoTalk." Journal of Communication Research, 56(4): 188-239. https://doi.org/10.22174/jcr.2019.56.2.188
  2. Lee, J. 2019. "An exploratory study on the political information behaviors of Korean opinion leaders on Twitter: Through the lens of theory of information worlds." Journal of the Korean Society for Library and Information Science, 53(1): 83-108. https://doi.org/10.4275/KSLIS.2019.53.1.083
  3. Chu, B.-W. 2013. "Causes and consequences of prejudice: Focusing on terror management theory." Moral Ethics and Education Research, 38: 27-45.
  4. Hwang, J. H. 2020. The public criticizes the court who approved the Gwang-Hwa-Moon Protest on August 15 in the middle of Covid-19 pandemic. The YonHap News. [online] [cited 2020. 10. 18.]
  5. Adamic, L. and Glance, N. 2005. "The political blogosphere and the 2004 U.S. election: Divided they blog." Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on Link Discovery.
  6. Addison, C. and Meyers, E. 2013. "Perspectives on information literacy: A framework for conceptual understanding." Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Conceptions of Library and Information Science, 1-14.
  7. Albertson, B. and Guiler, K. 2020. "Conspiracy theories, election rigging, and support for democratic norms." Research and Politics, 7(3).
  8. Alfano, M., Carter, J. A. and Cheong, M. 2018. "Technological seduction and self-radicalization." Journal of the American Philosophical Association, 4(3): 298-322. https://doi.org/10.1017/apa.2018.27
  9. Allington D. et al. 2020. "Health-protective behaviour, social media usage and conspiracy belief during the COVID-19 public health emergency." Psychological Medicine, 1-7.
  10. Apuke, O. D. and Omar, B. 2020. "Fake news and COVID-19: Modelling the predictors of fake news sharing among social media users." Telematics and Informatics, 101475 (In Press).
  11. Arndt, J. et al. 2000. "Death can be hazardous to your health: Adaptive and ironic consequences of defenses against the terror of death." In P. R. Duberstein & J. M. Masling (Eds.), Empirical studies of psychoanalytic theories. Psychodynamic perspectives on sickness and health (pp. 201-257). American Psychological Association.
  12. Baer, A. 2018. "It's all relative? Post-truth rhetoric, relativism, and teaching on "authority as constructed and contextual."" College and Research Libraries News, 79(2): 72-97.
  13. Baer, A. 2020. "What intellectual empathy can offer information literacy education." In Informed Societies (pp. 47-68).
  14. Berelson, B. R., Lazarsfeld, P. F. and McPhee, W. N. (1954). Voting: A study of opinion formation in a presidential election. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  15. Berger, M. and Sarnyai, Z. 2015. "'More than skin deep': Stress neurobiology and mental health consequences of racial discrimination." The International Journal on the Biology of Stress, 18(1): 1-10. https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2014.989204
  16. Bjola, C. 2018. "The ethics of countering digital propaganda." Ethics and International Affairs, 32(3): 305-315.
  17. boyd, d. 2018. "You think you want media literacy… Do you?" Data & Society: Points, 9 March 2018.
  18. Bradshaw, S. and Howard, P. N. 2018. "Challenging truth and trust: A global inventory of organized social media manipulation." Comprop.Oii.Ox.Ac.Uk: 26.
  19. Burgess, D. et al. 2007. "Effects of perceived discrimination on mental health and mental health services utilization among Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender persons." Journal of LGBT Health Research, 3(4): 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/15574090802226626
  20. Burke, B. L., Kosloff, S. and Landau, M. J. 2013. "Death goes to the polls: A meta-analysis of mortality salience effects on political attitudes." Political Psychology, 34(2): 183-200. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12005
  21. Bursztyn, L. et al. 2020. "Misinformation during a pandemic." Becker Friedman Institute for Economics Working Paper No. 2020-44.
  22. Buss, D. M. 1984. "Evolutionary biology and personality psychology: Toward a conception of human nature and individual differences." American Psychologist, 39: 1135-1147. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.39.10.1135
  23. Caswell, M. 2017. "Teaching to dismantle white supremacy in archives." The Library Quarterly, 87(3): 222-235. https://doi.org/10.1086/692299
  24. Chadwick, A. 2006. Internet politics: States, citizens, and new communication technologies. New York: Oxford University Press.
  25. Chatman, E. A. 1986. "Diffusion theory: A review and test of a conceptual model in information diffusion." Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 37(6): 377-386. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(198611)37:6<377::AID-ASI2>3.0.CO;2-C
  26. Chatman, E. A. 1996. "The impoverished life-world of outsiders." Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 47(3): 193-206. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199603)47:3<193::AID-ASI3>3.0.CO;2-T
  27. Chowkwanyun, M. and Reed, A. L. 2020. "Racial health disparities and Covid-19 -- Caution and context." The New England Journal of Medicine, 383: 201-203. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp2012910
  28. Chikovani, G. et al. 2015. "Empathy costs: Negative emotional bias in high empathisers." Psychiatry Research, 229(1-2): 340-346.
  29. Chu, B.-W. 2013. "Causes and consequences of prejudice: Focusing on terror management theory." Moral Ethics and Education Research, 38: 27-45.
  30. Cohen, F. et al. 2004. "Fatal attraction: The effects of mortality salience on evaluations of charismatic, task-oriented, and relationship-oriented leaders." Psychological Science, 15(12): 846-851. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00765.x
  31. Condon, P. and Makransky, J. 2020. "Sustainable compassion training: Integrating meditation theory with psychological science." Frontiers in Psychology, 11(September), 1-16.
  32. Conover., M. D. et al. 2011. "Political polarization on Twitter." Proceedings of the 5th International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media.
  33. Cooke, N. A. 2017. "Posttruth, truthiness, and alternative facts: Information behavior and critical information consumption for a new age." The Library Quarterly, 87(3): 211-221. https://doi.org/10.1086/692298
  34. Cooke, N. A., Sweeney, M. E. and Noble, S. U. 2016. "Social justice as topic and tool: An attempt to transform an LIS curriculum and culture." The Library Quarterly, 86(1): 107-124. https://doi.org/10.1086/684147
  35. Courtney, E. P., Goldenberg, J. L. and Boyd, P. 2020. "The contagion of mortality: A terror management health model for pandemics." British Journal of Social Psychology, 59(3): 607-617. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12392
  36. Cozzolino, P. J. et al. 2004. "Greed, death, and values: From terror management to transcendence management theory." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(3): 278-292. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203260716
  37. Craft, S., Ashley, S. and Maksl, A. 2017. "News media literacy and conspiracy theory endorsement." Communication and the Public, 2(4): 388-401.
  38. Dahlgren, P. 2005. "The internet, public spheres and political communication: Dispersion and deliberation." Political Communication, 22(2): 147-162. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584600590933160
  39. Dai, Y. and Luqiu, L. 2020. "Camouflaged propaganda: A survey experiment on political native advertising." Research and Politics, 7(3).
  40. Das, E. et al. 2014. "Exploring killer ads: A terror management account of death in advertisements." Psychology and Marketing, 31(10): 828-842.
  41. Deci, E. L. and Ryan, R. M. 1980. "The empirical exploration of intrinsic motivational process." In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Psychology: Vol. 13 (pp. 39-80). New York: Academic Press.
  42. Demirci, E. et al. 2016. "The relationship between aggression, empathy skills and serum oxytocin levels in male children and adolescents with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder." Behavioural Pharmacology, 27(8): 681-688. https://doi.org/10.1097/FBP.0000000000000234
  43. Dervin, B. 1983. "An overview of sense-making research: Concepts, methods, and results to date." Paper presented at the International Communication Association Annual Meeting, May 1983, Dallas, TX.
  44. Dervin, B. 1998. "Sense-making theory and practice: An overview of user interests in knowledge seeking and use." Journal of Knowledge Management, 2(2): 36-46. https://doi.org/10.1108/13673279810249369
  45. Dervin, B. and Nilan, M. 1986. "Information needs and uses." Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, 21: 19-38.
  46. Devakumar, D. et al. 2020. "Racism and discrimination in COVID-19 responses." The Lancet, 395(10231): 1194. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30792-3
  47. DeWall, C. Nathan and Roy F. Baumeister. 2007. "From terror to joy: Automatic tuning to positive affective information following mortality salience." Psychological Science, 18(11): 984-990. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.02013.x
  48. Dolliver, M. J. et al. 2018. "Examining the relationship between media consumption, fear of crime, and support for controversial criminal justice policies using a nationally representative sample." Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 34(4): 399-420.
  49. Fairlamb, S. and Cinnirella, M. 2020. "To be or not to be tolerant? A terror management perspective exploring the ideological dilemma of tolerance and prejudice." British Journal of Social Psychology.
  50. Farmer, L. 2019. "News literacy and fake news curriculum: School librarians' perceptions of pedagogical practices." Journal of Media Literacy Education, 11(3): 1-11.
  51. Fischer-Preßler, D., Schwemmer, C. and Fischbach, K. 2019. "Collective sense-making in times of crisis: connecting terror management theory with Twitter user reactions to the Berlin terror attack." Computers in Human Behavior, 100: 138-151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.05.012
  52. Gao, J. et al. 2020. "Mental health problems and social media exposure during COVID-19 outbreak." PLoS ONE, 15(4): e0231924.
  53. Gibson, A., Hughes-Hassell, S. and Threats, M. 2018. "Chapter 4: Critical race theory in the LIS curriculum." In Re-envisioning the MLS: Perspectives on the future of Library and Information Science education (Vol. 44B, pp. 49-70). Emerald Publishing Limited.
  54. Gibson, A. N. 2019. "Civility and structural precarity for faculty of color in LIS." Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 60(3): 215-222. https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.2019-0006
  55. Gibson, A. N. et al. 2017. "Libraries on the frontlines: Neutrality and social justice." Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal Libraries, 36(8): 751-766.
  56. Gibson A. N. and Hughes-Hassell, S. 2017. "We will not be silent: Amplifying marginalized voices in LIS education and research." The Library Quarterly, 87(4): 317-329. https://doi.org/10.1086/693488
  57. Golman, R., Hagmann, D. and Loewenstein, G. 2017. "Information avoidance." Journal of Economic Literature, 55(1): 96-135. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20151245
  58. Gover, A. R., Harper, S. B. and Langton, L. 2020. "Anti-Asian hate crime during the COVID-19 pandemic: Exploring the reproduction of inequality." American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(4): 647-667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09545-1
  59. Green, J. and Patrick, M. 2013. "Terror management and civic engagement: An experimental investigation of effects of mortality salience on civic engagement intentions." Journal of Media Psychology, 25(3): 142-151. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000095
  60. Greenberg, J. and Kosloff, S. 2008. "Terror management theory: Implications for understanding prejudice, stereotyping, intergroup conflict, and political attitudes." Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(5): 1881-1894. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00144.x
  61. Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T. and Solomon, S. 1986. "The causes and consequences of a need for self-esteem: A terror management theory." Public Self and Private Self (pp. 189-212). New York: Springer.
  62. Greenberg, J., Vail, K. and Pyszczynski, T. 2014. "Terror management theory and research: How the desire for death transcendence drives our strivings for meaning and significance." In Advances in Motivation Science (pp. 85-134.). New York: Academic Press.
  63. Gross, M. 2005. "The impact of low-level skills on information-seeking behavior: Implications of competency theory for research and practice." Reference & User Services Quarterly, 45(2): 155-162.
  64. Gross, M. and Latham, D. 2012. "What's skill got to do with it? Information literacy skills and self-views of ability among first-year college students." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 63(3): 574-583. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.21681
  65. Guan, L. et al. 2015. "Self-esteem buffers the mortality salience effect on the implicit self-face processing." Personality and Individual Differences, 85: 77-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.04.032
  66. Hansen, J., Winzeler, S. and Topolinski, S. 2010. "When the death makes you smoke: A terror management perspective on the effectiveness of cigarette on-pack warnings." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46: 226-228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.09.007
  67. Hara, N. and Huang, B. Y. 2011. "Online social movements." Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, 45(1): 489-522. https://doi.org/10.1002/aris.2011.1440450117
  68. Harmon-Jones, E. et al. 1996. "The effects of mortality salience on intergroup bias between minimal groups." European Journal of Social Psychology, 26(4): 677-681. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199607)26:4<677::AID-EJSP777>3.0.CO;2-2
  69. Harrington, S. and McNair, B. 2012. "The "new" news." Media International Australia, 144(1): 49-51.
  70. Hermans, E. J. et al. 2014. "Dynamic adaptation of large-scale brain networks in response to acute stressors." Trends in Neurosciences, 37(6): 304-314.
  71. Himelboim, I., McCreery, S. and Smith, M. 2013. "Birds of a feather tweet together: Integrating network and content analysis to examine cross-ideology exposure on Twitter." Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 18: 154-174.
  72. Hirschberger, G., Ein-Dor, T. and Almakias, S. 2008. "The self-protective altruist: Terror management and the ambivalent nature of prosocial behavior." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(5): 666-678. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207313933
  73. Hiser, J. and Koenigs, M. 2018. "The multifaceted role of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in emotion, decision making, social cognition, and psychopathology." Biological Psychiatry, 83(8): 638-647.
  74. Holmes, E. A. et al. 2020. "Multidisciplinary research priorities for the COVID-19 pandemic: A call for action for mental health science." The Lancet Psychiatry, 7: 547-560.
  75. Huckfeldt, R. R., Johnson, P. E. and Sprague, J. 2004. Political disagreement: The survival of diverse opinions within communication networks. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  76. Jacobson, T. E. and Mackey, T. P. 2013. "Proposing a metaliteracy model to redefine information literacy." Communications in Information Literacy, 7(2): 84-91. https://doi.org/10.15760/comminfolit.2013.7.2.138
  77. Jager, C. and Malfatti, F. I. 2020. "The social fabric of understanding: Equilibrium, authority, and epistemic empathy." Synthese.
  78. Jaeger, P. T. et al. 2015. "The virtuous circle revisited: Injecting diversity, inclusion, rights, justice, and equity into LIS from education to advocacy." The Library Quarterly, 85(2): 150-171. https://doi.org/10.1086/680154
  79. Jessop, D. C. et al. 2008. "Understanding the impact of mortality-related health-risk information: A terror management theory perspective." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(7): 951-964. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208316790
  80. Jimerson, R. C. 2007. "Archives for all: Professional responsibility and social justice." The American Archivist, 70(2): 252-281. https://doi.org/10.17723/aarc.70.2.5n20760751v643m7
  81. Johnson, N. F. et al. 2020. "The online competition between pro- and anti-vaccination views." Nature, 582: 230-233. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2281-1
  82. Jolls, T. and Wilson, C. 2014. "The core concepts: Fundamental to media literacy yesterday, today and tomorrow." Journal of Media Literacy Education, 6(2): 68-78.
  83. Jonas, E. et al. 2008. "Focus theory of normative conduct and terror-management theory: The interactive impact of mortality salience and norm salience on social judgment." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(6): 1239-1251. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013593
  84. Jones, J. P. 2012. "Fox News and the performance of ideology." Cinema Journal, 51(4): 178-185. https://doi.org/10.1353/cj.2012.0073
  85. Juhl, J. and Routledge, C. 2010. "Structured terror: Further exploring the effects of mortality salience and personal need for structure on worldview defense." Journal of Personality, 78(3): 969-989. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00639.x
  86. Juhl, J. and Routledge, C. 2016. "Putting the terror in terror management theory: Evidence that the awareness of death does cause anxiety and undermine psychological well-being." Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(2): 99-103. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721415625218
  87. Kashima, E. S. 2010. "Culture and terror management: What is "culture" in cultural psychology and terror management theory?" Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(3): 164-173. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00248.x
  88. Kim, E. J. 2019. "A study on seniors' political communication via SNS: Case of KaKaoTalk." Journal of Communication Research, 56(4): 188-239. https://doi.org/10.22174/jcr.2019.56.2.188
  89. Kirkpatrick, L. A. and Navarrete, C. D. 2006. "Reports of my death anxiety have been greatly exaggerated: A critique of terror management theory from an evolutionary perspective." Psychological Inquiry, 17(4): 288-298. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400701366969
  90. Kuhlthau, C. C. 1988. "Developing a model of the library research process: Cognitive and affective aspects." Reference Quarterly, 28: 232-242.
  91. Kuhlthau, C. C., 1991. "Inside the search process: Information seeking from the user's perspective." Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 42(5): 361-371. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199106)42:5<361::AID-ASI6>3.0.CO;2-#
  92. Kuhlthau, C. C. 1993. "Principle of uncertainty for information seeking." Journal of Documentation, 49(4): 339-355. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb026918
  93. Kymes, A. 2011. "Media literacy and information literacy: A need for collaboration and communication." Action in Teacher Education, 33(2): 184-193.
  94. Lambert, S. D. and Loiselle, C. G. 2007. "Health information-seeking behavior." Qualitative Health Research, 17(8): 1006-1019.
  95. Landau, M. J. et al. 2007. "On the compatibility of terror management theory and perspectives on human evolution." Evolutionary Psychology, 5: 476-519.
  96. Landrine, H. and Klonoff, E. A. 1996. "The schedule of racist events: A measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental health consequences." Journal of Black Psychology, 22(2): 144-168. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984960222002
  97. Laurencin, C. T. and McClinton, A. 2020. "The COVID-19 pandemic: A call to action to identify and address racial and ethnic disparities." Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 7: 398-402. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00756-0
  98. Le, T. K. et al. 2020. "Anti-Asian xenophobia and Asian American COVID-19 disparities." American Journal of Public Health, 110(9): 1371-1373.
  99. Leaning, M. 2019. "An approach to digital literacy through the integration of media and information literacy." Media and Communication, 7(2 Critical Perspectives), 4-13.
  100. Lee, A. Y. L. and So, C. Y. K. 2014. "Media literacy and information literacy: Similarities and differences." Comunicar, 21(42): 137-145.
  101. Lee, J. et al. 2016. "South Korean citizens' political information-sharing on Twitter during 2012 general election." In Davis et al. (Eds.), Twitter and elections around the world: Campaigning in 140 characters or less. Philadelphia: Routledge.
  102. Licari, P. R. 2020. "Sharp as a fox: Are Foxnews.com visitors less politically knowledgeable?" American Politics Research, 48(6): 792-806. https://doi.org/10.1177/1532673X20915222
  103. Lieberman, J. D. et al. 1999. "A hot new way to measure aggression: Hot sauce allocation." Aggressive Behavior, 25(5): 331-348. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(1999)25:5<331::AID-AB2>3.0.CO;2-1
  104. Lin, C.-Y. et al. 2020. "Investigating mediated effects of fear of COVID-19 and COVID-19 misunderstanding in the association between problematic social media use, psychological distress, and insomnia." Internet Interventions, 21: 100345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.invent.2020.100345
  105. Linker, M. 2016. Intellectual empathy: Critical thinking for social justice. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
  106. Ma, J. 2014. "Interacting with health information for self-care: An exploratory study of undergraduate students' health information literacy [dissertation]." Florida State University: Tallahassee, FL.
  107. Ma, L. 2012. "Meanings of information: The assumptions and research consequences of three foundational LIS theories." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 63(4): 716-723. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.21711
  108. Marshall, J. G. 1990. "Diffusion of innovation theory and end-user searching." Library and Information Science Research, 12(1): 55-69.
  109. Martin, L. and van den Bos, K. 2014. "Beyond terror: Toward a paradigm shift in the study of threat and culture." European Journal of Social Psychology, 25: 32-70. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2014.923144
  110. Mason, L. E., Krutka, D. and Stoddard, J. 2018. "Media literacy, democracy, and the challenge of fake news." Journal of Media Literacy Education, 10(2): 1-10.
  111. Masterman, L. 1989. Media awareness education: Eighteen basic principles. Malibu, CA: Center for Media Literacy. [online] [cited 2020. 10. 12.]
  112. Mellon, C. 1986. "Library anxiety: A grounded theory and its development." College & Research Libraries, 47(2): 160-165. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl_47_02_160
  113. Mestre, L. S. 2010. "Librarians working with diverse populations: What impact does cultural competency training have on their efforts?" The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 36(6): 479-488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2010.08.003
  114. Metaxas, P. T. and Mustafajaj, E. 2010. "From obscurity to prominence in minutes: Political speech and real-time search." Proceedings of Web Science Conference, April 26-27, Raleigh, NC, USA.
  115. Misra, S. et al. 2020. "Psychological impact of anti-Asian stigma due to the COVID-19 pandemic: A call for research, practice, and policy responses." Psychological Trauma, 12(5): 461-464. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000821
  116. Montiel-Overall, P. 2009. "Cultural competence: A conceptual framework for Library and Information Science professionals." The Library Quarterly, 72(2): 175-204.
  117. Murrock, E. et al. 2018. "Winning the war on state-sponsored propaganda: Results from an impact study of a Ukrainian news media and information literacy program." Journal of Media Literacy Education, 10(2): 53-85.
  118. Nadal, K. L. et al. 2014. "The impact of racial microaggressions on mental health: Counseling implications for clients of color." Journal of Counseling & Development, 92(1): 57-66. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00130.x
  119. Nahl, D. and Bilal, D. (Eds.). 2007. Information and emotion: The emergent affective paradigm in information behavior research and theory. Medford, NJ: Information Today, Inc., 2007.
  120. Nasi, M. et al. 2020. "Crime news consumption and fear of violence: The role of traditional media, social media, and alternative information sources." Crime and Delinquency, 24 (Unioninkatu 40).
  121. Navarrete, C. D. and Fessler, D. M. T. 2005. "Normative bias and adaptive challenges: A relational approach to coalitional psychology and a critique of terror management theory." Evolutionary Psychology, 3: 297-325.
  122. Nickerson, R. S. 1998. "Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises." Review of General Psychology, 2(2): 175-220. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175
  123. Papacharissi, Z. 2002. "The virtual sphere: The internet as a public sphere." New Media Society, 4(1): 9-27.
  124. Pereira, H. and Costa, P. A. 2016. "Modeling the impact of social discrimination on the physical and mental health of Portuguese Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual people." Innovation: The International Journal of Social Science Research, 29(2): 205-217. https://doi.org/10.1080/13511610.2016.1157683
  125. Perloff, R. M. 2016. "An integrative terror management theory perspective on media effects: A model and 12 hypotheses for research." Studies in Media and Communication, 4(1): 49-62.
  126. Pettigrew, K. E., and McKechnie, L. E. F. 2001. "The use of theory in information research." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 52(1): 62-73. https://doi.org/10.1002/1532-2890(2000)52:1<62::AID-ASI1061>3.0.CO;2-J
  127. Pew Research Center. 2020. "Republicans, Democrats move even further apart in coronavirus concerns [report]." [cited 2020. 10. 18.]
  128. Poulakidakos, S., Veneti, A. and Fangonikolopoulos, C. 2018. "Post-truth, propaganda and the transformation of the spiral of silence." International Journal of Media and Cultural Politics, 14(3): 367-382.
  129. Pyszczynski, T., Abdollahi, A., et al. 2006. "Mortality salience, martyrdom, and military might: The Great Satan versus the Axis of Evil." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32: 525-537. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205282157
  130. Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J. et al. 2006. "On the unique psychological import of the human awareness of mortality: Theme and variations." Psychological Inquiry, 17: 328-356. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400701369542
  131. Pyszczynski, T., Lockett, M. et al. 2020. "Terror management theory and the COVID-19 pandemic." Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 1-17.
  132. Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S. and Greenberg, J. 2015. "Thirty years of terror management theory: From genesis to revelation." In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 52, pp. 1-70). New York: Academic Press.
  133. Raber, D. 2003. The problem of information: An introduction to information science. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.
  134. Raber, D. and Budd, J. M. 2003. "Information as sign: Semiotics and information science." Journal of Documentation, 59(5)): 507-522. https://doi.org/10.1108/00220410310499564
  135. Salgado, S. 2018. "Online media impact on politics. Views on post-truth politics and post-postmodernism." International Journal of Media and Cultural Politics, 14(3): 317-331.
  136. Schmeichel, M. T. et al. 2009. "Terror management theory and self-esteem revisited: The roles of implicit and explicit self-esteem in mortality salience effects." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(5): 1077-1087. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015091
  137. Shehryar, O. and Hunt, D. M. 2005. "A terror management perspective on the persuasiveness of fear appeals." Journal of Consumer Psychology, 15(4): 275-287.
  138. Shirky, C. 2011. "The political power of social media: Technology, the public sphere, and political change." Foreign Affairs, 28(January/February).
  139. Shpeizer, R. 2018. "Teaching critical thinking as a vehicle for personal and social transformation." Research in Education, 100(1): 32-49.
  140. Silverman, K. N. and Piedmont, J. 2016. "Reading the big picture: A visual literacy curriculum for today." Knowledge Quest, 44(5): 32-38.
  141. Simon, H. A. 1976. Administrative behavior: A study of decision-making processes in administrative organization [3rd ed]. New York: Free Press.
  142. Smith, M., McAweeney, E. and Ronzaud, L. 2020. "The COVID-19 "Infodemic": A preliminary analysis of the online conversation surrounding the coronavirus pandemic." Graphika. [online] [cited 2020. 10. 12].
  143. So, K. K. F. et al. 2018. "Brand management in the era of social media: Social visibility of consumption and customer brand identification." Journal of Travel Research, 57(6): 727-742.
  144. Solomon, S., Greenberg, J. and Pyszczynski, T. 1991. "A terror management theory of social behavior: The psychological functions of self-esteem and cultural worldviews." Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 24: 93-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60328-7
  145. Solomon, S., Greenberg, J. and Pyszczynski, T. 1997. "Return of the living dead." Psychological Inquiry, 8: 59-71. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0801_13
  146. Solomon, S., Greenberg, J. and Pyszczynski, T. 2004. "The cultural animal: Twenty years of terror management theory and research." Handbook of Experimental Existential Psychology (pp. 13-34). New York: Guildford Press.
  147. Solomon, S, Greenberg, J. and Pyszczynski, T. 2015. The worm at the core: The role of death in life. New York: Random House.
  148. Sunstein, C. R. 2007. Republic.com 2.0. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
  149. Taylor, S. J., Muchnik, L. and Aral, S. 2014. "Identity and opinion: A randomized experiment." SSRN Electronic Journal, 1-40.
  150. Tennant, B. et al. 2015. "eHealth literacy and Web 2.0 health information seeking behaviors among Baby Boomers and older adults." Journal of Medical Internet Research, 17(3): e70. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.3992
  151. Thoman, E. 1999. "Skills and strategies for media education." Educational Leadership, 56: 50-54.
  152. Thorbjørnsrud, K. and Figenschou, T. U. 2020. "The alarmed citizen: Fear, mistrust, and alternative media." Journalism Practice, 1-18.
  153. Torales, J. et al. 2020. "The outbreak of COVID-19 coronavirus and its impact on global mental health." International Journal of Social Psychology, 66(4): 317-320. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020915212
  154. Tripp, L. 2011. "Digital youth, libraries, and new media literacy." Reference Librarian, 52(4): 329-341.
  155. Trnka, R. and Lorencova, R. 2020. "Fear, anger, and media-induced trauma during the outbreak of COVID-19 in the Czech Republic." Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(5): 546-549.
  156. Tully, M., Vraga, E. K. and Bode, L. 2020. "Designing and testing news literacy messages for social media." Mass Communication and Society, 23(1): 22-46.
  157. Vamanu, I. 2019. "Fake news and propaganda: A critical discourse research perspective." Open Information Science, 3(1): 197-208.
  158. van Dorn, A., Cooney, R. E. and Sabin, M. L. 2020. "COVID-19 exacerbating inequalities in the US." Lancet, 395(10232): 1243-1244. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30893-X
  159. Warner, J. 1990. "Semiotics, Information Science, documents and computers." Journal of Documentation, 46(1): 16-32. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb026850
  160. Webb Hooper, M., Nápoles, A. M. and Perez-Stable, E. J. 2020. "COVID-19 and racial/ethnic disparities." Journal of the American Medical Association, 323(24): 2466-2467. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.8598
  161. Weise, D. R. et al. 2012. "Terror management and attitudes toward immigrants: Differential effects of mortality salience for low and high right-wing authoritarians." European Psychologist, 17(1): 63-72. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000056
  162. Williams, K. 2008. "Cultural diversity and how to survive it." Informacijos Mokslai / Information Sciences, 45: 108-111. https://doi.org/10.15388/Im.2008.0.3380
  163. Williams, V. K. and Deyoe, N. 2014. "Diverse population, diverse collection? Youth collections in the United States." Technical Services Quarterly, 31(2): 97-121. https://doi.org/10.1080/07317131.2014.875373
  164. Williamson, H., Fay, S. and Miles-Johnson, T. 2019. "Fear of terrorism: Media exposure and subjective fear of attack." Global Crime, 20(1): 1-25.
  165. Wolfe, S. E. and Tubi, A. 2019. "Terror management theory and mortality awareness: A missing link in climate response studies?" Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews-Climate Change, 10(2): 1-13.
  166. World Health Organization. 2020. WHO coronavirus disease (COVID-19) dashboard. [online][cited 2020. 10. 14.]
  167. Yancy, C. W. 2020. "COVID-19 and African Americans." Journal of the American Medical Association, 323(19): 1891-1892. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.6548
  168. Zarocostas, J. 2020. "How to fight an infodemic." The Lancet, 395(10225): 676. .
  169. Zipf, G. K. 1949. Human behavior and the principle of least effort: An introduction to human ecology. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
  170. Zollmann, F. 2019. "Bringing propaganda back into news media studies." Critical Sociology, 45(3): 329-345.