Archives of Plastic Surgery

  • 제50권1호
  • /
  • Pages.82-95
  • /
  • 2023
  • /
  • 2234-6163(pISSN)
  • /
  • 2234-6171(eISSN)
대한성형외과학회 (Korean Society of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgeons)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Vascularized Bone Graft Reconstruction for Upper Extremity Defects: A Review

  • Ava G. Chappell (Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine) ;
  • Matthew D. Ramsey (Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine) ;
  • Parinaz J. Dabestani (Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Loyola University Medical Center) ;
  • Jason H. Ko (Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine)
  • 투고 : 2021.09.19
  • 심사 : 2022.08.04
  • 발행 : 2023.01.15
PDF 다운로드
⟨ 이전 논문 다음 논문 ⟩

초록

Upper extremity reconstruction may pose clinical challenges for surgeons due to the often-critical, complex functional demands of the damaged and/or missing structures. The advent of vascularized bone grafts (VBGs) has aided in reconstruction of upper extremity (UE) defects due to their superior regenerative properties compared with nonvascularized bone grafts, ability to reconstruct large bony defects, and multiple donor site options. VBGs may be pedicled or free transfers and have the potential for composite tissue transfers when bone and soft tissue are needed. This article provides a comprehensive up-to-date review of VBGs, the commonly reported donor sites, and their indications for the treatment of specific UE defects.

키워드

참고문헌

  1. Huntington TW. VI. case of bone transference: use of a segment of fibula to supply a defect in the tibia. Ann Surg 1905;41(02):249-251  https://doi.org/10.1097/00000658-190502000-00006
  2. Taylor GI, Miller GD, Ham FJ. The free vascularized bone graft. A clinical extension of microvascular techniques. Plast Reconstr Surg 1975;55(05):533-544  https://doi.org/10.1097/00006534-197505000-00002
  3. Repo JP, Sommarhem A, Roine RP, Sintonen H, Halonen T, Tukiainen E. Free vascularized fibular graft is reliable in upper extremity long-bone reconstruction with good long-term outcomes. J Reconstr Microsurg 2016;32(07):513-519  https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0036-1581075
  4. Barrera-Ochoa SS, Soldado F, Rodriguez-Baeza A, et al. Vascularized humeral periosteal flap to treat lateral humeral condyle nonunion: an anatomical study and report of two successfully-treated pediatric cases. Microsurgery 2019;39(02):156-159  https://doi.org/10.1002/micr.30261
  5. Hilven PH, Bayliss L, Cosker T, et al. The vascularised fibular graft for limb salvage after bone tumour surgery: a multicentre study. Bone Joint J 2015;97-B(06):853-861  https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.97B6.34692
  6. Inoue K, Suenaga N, Oizumi N, Tanaka Y, Minami A. A vascularized scapular graft for juvenile osteonecrosis of the humeral head. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 2012;21(04):e9-e13  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jse.2011.08.070
  7. Fillingham Y, Jacobs J. Bone grafts and their substitutes. Bone Joint J 2016;98-B(1, Suppl A):6-9  https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.98B.36350
  8. Karalashvili L, Kakabadze A, Uhryn M, Vyshnevska H, Ediberidze K, Kakabadze Z. Bone grafts for reconstruction of bone defects. (Review) Georgian Med News 2018;...(282):44-49 
  9. Martin WB, Sicard R, Namin SM, Ganey T. Methods of cryoprotectant preservation: allogeneic cellular bone grafts and potential effects. BioMed Res Int 2019;2019:5025398 
  10. Roberts TT, Rosenbaum AJ. Bone grafts, bone substitutes and orthobiologics: the bridge between basic science and clinical advancements in fracture healing. Organogenesis 2012;8(04):114-124  https://doi.org/10.4161/org.23306
  11. Azi ML, Aprato A, Santi I, Kfuri M Jr, Masse A, Joeris A. Autologous bone graft in the treatment of post-traumatic bone defects: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2016;17(01):465 
  12. Myeroff C, Archdeacon M. Autogenous bone graft: donor sites and techniques. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2011;93(23):2227-2236  https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.J.01513
  13. Ashman O, Phillips AM. Treatment of non-unions with bone defects: which option and why? Injury 2013;44(Suppl 1):S43-S45  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0020-1383(13)70010-X
  14. Klifto CS, Gandi SD, Sapienza A. Bone graft options in upper-extremity surgery. J Hand Surg Am 2018;43(08):755-761.e2  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhsa.2018.03.055
  15. Allsopp BJ, Hunter-Smith DJ, Rozen WM. Vascularized versus nonvascularized bone grafts: what is the evidence? Clin Orthop Relat Res 2016;474(05):1319-1327  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11999-016-4769-4
  16. Hovius SER, de Jong T. Bone grafts for scaphoid nonunion: an overview. Hand Surg 2015;20(02):222-227  https://doi.org/10.1142/S0218810415400043
  17. Merrell GA, Wolfe SW, Slade JF III. Treatment of scaphoid nonunions: quantitative meta-analysis of the literature. J Hand Surg Am 2002;27(04):685-691  https://doi.org/10.1053/jhsu.2002.34372
  18. Munk B, Larsen CF. Bone grafting the scaphoid nonunion: a systematic review of 147 publications including 5,246 cases of scaphoid nonunion. Acta Orthop Scand 2004;75(05):618-629  https://doi.org/10.1080/00016470410001529
  19. Scholz AO, Gehrmann S, Glombitza M, et al. Reconstruction of septic diaphyseal bone defects with the induced membrane technique. Injury 2015;46(Suppl 4):S121-S124  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0020-1383(15)30030-9
  20. Masquelet AC, Fitoussi F, Begue T, Muller GP. [Reconstruction of the long bones by the induced membrane and spongy autograft]. Ann Chir Plast Esthet 2000;45(03):346-353 
  21. Karger C, Kishi T, Schneider L, Fitoussi F, Masquelet A-CFrench Society of Orthopaedic Surgery and Traumatology (SoFCOT) Treatment of posttraumatic bone defects by the induced membrane technique. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res 2012;98(01):97-102  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.otsr.2011.11.001
  22. Pelissier P, Bollecker V, Martin D, Baudet J. [Foot reconstruction with the "bi-Masquelet" procedure]. Ann Chir Plast Esthet 2002;47(04):304-307  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0294-1260(02)00123-1
  23. Petrella G, Tosi D, Pantaleoni F, Adani R. Vascularized bone grafts for post-traumatic defects in the upper extremity. Arch Plast Surg 2021;48(01):84-90  https://doi.org/10.5999/aps.2020.00969
  24. Malizos KN, Zalavras CG, Soucacos PN, Beris AE, Urbaniak JR. Free vascularized fibular grafts for reconstruction of skeletal defects. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2004;12(05):360-369  https://doi.org/10.5435/00124635-200409000-00010
  25. Houdek MT, Wagner ER, Wyles CC, Nanos GP III, Moran SL. New options for vascularized bone reconstruction in the upper extremity. Semin Plast Surg 2015;29(01):20-29  https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1544167
  26. Karaismailoglu B, Fatih Guven M, Erenler M, Botanlioglu H. The use of pedicled vascularized bone grafts in the treatment of scaphoid nonunion: clinical results, graft options and indications. EFORT Open Rev 2020;5(01):1-8  https://doi.org/10.1302/2058-5241.5.190021
  27. Zaidemberg C, Siebert JW, Angrigiani C. A new vascularized bone graft for scaphoid nonunion. J Hand Surg Am 1991;16(03):474-478  https://doi.org/10.1016/0363-5023(91)90017-6
  28. Alluri RK, Yin C, Iorio ML, Leland H, Mack WJ, Patel K. A critical appraisal of vascularized bone grafting for scaphoid nonunion. J Wrist Surg 2017;6(03):251-257  https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0036-1597575
  29. Sheetz KK, Bishop AT, Berger RA. The arterial blood supply of the distal radius and ulna and its potential use in vascularized pedicled bone grafts. J Hand Surg Am 1995;20(06):902-914  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0363-5023(05)80136-4
  30. Waitayawinyu T, Robertson C, Chin SH, Schlenker JD, Pettrone S, Trumble TE. The detailed anatomy of the 1,2 intercompartmental supraretinacular artery for vascularized bone grafting of scaphoid nonunions. J Hand Surg Am 2008;33(02):168-174  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhsa.2007.08.021
  31. Chang MA, Bishop AT, Moran SL, Shin AY. The outcomes and complications of 1,2-intercompartmental supraretinacular artery pedicled vascularized bone grafting of scaphoid nonunions. J Hand Surg Am 2006;31(03):387-396  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhsa.2005.10.019
  32. Steinmann SP, Bishop AT, Berger RA. Use of the 1,2 intercompartmental supraretinacular artery as a vascularized pedicle bone graft for difficult scaphoid nonunion. J Hand Surg Am 2002;27(03):391-401  https://doi.org/10.1053/jhsu.2002.32077
  33. Waitayawinyu T, McCallister WV, Katolik LI, Schlenker JD, Trumble TE. Outcome after vascularized bone grafting of scaphoid nonunions with avascular necrosis. J Hand Surg Am 2009;34(03):387-394  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhsa.2008.11.023
  34. Kawamura K, Chung KC. Treatment of scaphoid fractures and nonunions. J Hand Surg Am 2008;33(06):988-997  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhsa.2008.04.026
  35. Straw RG, Davis TRC, Dias JJ. Scaphoid nonunion: treatment with a pedicled vascularized bone graft based on the 1,2 intercompartmental supraretinacular branch of the radial artery. J Hand Surg [Br] 2002;27(05):413 
  36. Boyer MI, von Schroeder HP, Axelrod TS. Scaphoid nonunion with avascular necrosis of the proximal pole. Treatment with a vascularized bone graft from the dorsum of the distal radius. J Hand Surg [Br] 1998;23(05):686-690  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0266-7681(98)80029-6
  37. Woon Tan JS, Tu YK. 2,3 intercompartmental supraretinacular artery pedicled vascularized bone graft for scaphoid nonunions. Tech Hand Up Extrem Surg 2013;17(02):62-67  https://doi.org/10.1097/BTH.0b013e31827c28e1
  38. Moran SL, Cooney WP, Berger RA, Bishop AT, Shin AY. The use of the 4 + 5 extensor compartmental vascularized bone graft for the treatment of Kienbock's disease. J Hand Surg Am 2005;30(01):50-58  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhsa.2004.10.002
  39. Ye X, Feng J-T, Yin H-W, Qiu Y-Q, Shen Y-D, Xu W-D. Use of 4+5 extensor compartmental vascularized bone graft and K-wire fixation for treating stage II-IIIA Kienbock's disease. Hand Surg Rehabil 2020;39(03):207-213  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hansur.2020.01.005
  40. Ozalp T, Oz C, Kale G, Erkan S. Scaphoid nonunion treated with vascularised bone graft from dorsal radius. Injury 2015;46(Suppl 2):S47-S52  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2015.05.032
  41. Sotereanos DG, Darlis NA, Dailiana ZH, Sarris IK, Malizos KN. A capsular-based vascularized distal radius graft for proximal pole scaphoid pseudarthrosis. J Hand Surg Am 2006;31(04):580-587  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhsa.2006.01.005
  42. Kuhlmann JN, Mimoun M, Boabighi A, Baux S. Vascularized bone graft pedicled on the volar carpal artery for non-union of the scaphoid. J Hand Surg [Br] 1987;12(02):203-210  https://doi.org/10.1016/0266-7681_87_90014-3
  43. Mathoulin C, Haerle M. Vascularized bone graft from the palmar carpal artery for treatment of scaphoid nonunion. J Hand Surg [Br] 1998;23(03):318-323  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0266-7681(98)80049-1
  44. Dailiana ZH, Malizos KN, Zachos V, Varitimidis SE, Hantes M, Karantanas A. Vascularized bone grafts from the palmar radius for the treatment of waist nonunions of the scaphoid. J Hand Surg Am 2006;31(03):397-404  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhsa.2005.09.021
  45. Malizos KN, Zachos V, Dailiana ZH, et al. Scaphoid nonunions: management with vascularized bone grafts from the distal radius: a clinical and functional outcome study. Plast Reconstr Surg 2007;119(05):1513-1525  https://doi.org/10.1097/01.prs.0000256144.52654.da
  46. Mathoulin C, Sallen V, Haerle M. Revascularisation of the lunate in Kienbock's disease by a vascularized bone graft harvested from the volar aspect of the radius: results after a minimum of five years follow-up. Rev Chir Orthop Repar Appar 2007;93:141 
  47. Kawai H, Yamamoto K. Pronator quadratus pedicled bone graft for old scaphoid fractures. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1988;70(05):829-831  https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.70B5.3192587
  48. Noaman HH, Shiha AE, Ibrahim AKH. Functional outcomes of nonunion scaphoid fracture treated by pronator quadratus pedicled bone graft. Ann Plast Surg 2011;66(01):47-52  https://doi.org/10.1097/SAP.0b013e3181d375f9
  49. Lee SK, Park JS, Choy WS. Scaphoid fracture nonunion treated with pronator quadratus pedicled vascularized bone graft and headless compression screw. Ann Plast Surg 2015;74(06):665-671  https://doi.org/10.1097/SAP.0000000000000025
  50. Malizos KN, Dailiana ZH, Innocenti M, Mathoulin CL, Mattar R Jr, Sauerbier M. Vascularized bone grafts for upper limb reconstruction: defects at the distal radius, wrist, and hand. J Hand Surg Am 2010;35(10):1710-1718  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhsa.2010.08.006
  51. Saffar P. [Replacement of the semilunar bone by the pisiform. Description of a new technique for the treatment of Kienboeck's disease]. Ann Chir Main 1982;1(03):276-279  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0753-9053(82)80027-6
  52. Tan Z, Xiang Z, Huang F, Yang Z, Xiao C, Duan X. Long-term results of vascularized os pisiform transfer for advanced Kienbock disease after follow-up for at least 15 years: a case series. Medicine (Baltimore) 2018;97(48):e13229 
  53. Pierer G, Steffen J, Hoflehner H. The vascular blood supply of the second metacarpal bone: anatomic basis for a new vascularized bone graft in hand surgery. An anatomical study in cadavers. Surg Radiol Anat 1992;14(02):103-112  https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01794884
  54. Brunelli F, Mathoulin C, Saffar P. [Description of a vascularized bone graft taken from the head of the 2nd metacarpal bone]. Ann Chir Main Memb Super 1992;11(01):40-45 
  55. Khan K, Riaz M, Small JO. The use of the second dorsal metacarpal artery for vascularized bone graft. An anatomical study. J Hand Surg [Br] 1998;23(03):308-310  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0266-7681(98)80047-8
  56. Pistre V, Reau AF, Pelissier P, Martin D, Baudet J. [Vascularized bone pedicle grafts of the hand and wrist: literature review and new donor sites]. Chir Main 2001;20(04):263-271  https://doi.org/10.1016/S1297-3203(01)00045-2
  57. Santa-Comba A, Amarante J, Silva A, Rodrigues J. Reverse dorsal metacarpal osteocutaneous flap. Br J Plast Surg 1997;50(07):555-558  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0007-1226(97)91305-9
  58. Bengoechea-Beeby MP, Cepeda-Una J, Abascal-Zuloaga A. Vascularized bone graft from the index metacarpal for Kienbock's disease: a case report. J Hand Surg Am 2001;26(03):437-443  https://doi.org/10.1053/jhsu.2001.24137
  59. Innocenti M, Delcroix L, Romano GF. Epiphyseal transplant: harvesting technique of the proximal fibula based on the anterior tibial artery. Microsurgery 2005;25(04):284-292  https://doi.org/10.1002/micr.20130
  60. Innocenti M, Mori F, Raffaini M, Lucattelli E, Innocenti A. Mandibular ramus and condyle reconstruction with vascularized proximal fibular epiphyseal transfer in the pediatric patient: a case report. Microsurgery 2020;40(07):818-822  https://doi.org/10.1002/micr.30589
  61. Bumbasirevic M, Stevanovic M, Bumbasirevic V, Lesic A, Atkinson HDE. Free vascularised fibular grafts in orthopaedics. Int Orthop 2014;38(06):1277-1282  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-014-2281-6
  62. Abou-Foul AK, Borumandi F. Anatomical variants of lower limb vasculature and implications for free fibula flap: systematic review and critical analysis. Microsurgery 2016;36(02):165-172  https://doi.org/10.1002/micr.30016
  63. Korompilias AV, Paschos NK, Lykissas MG, Kostas-Agnantis I, Vekris MD, Beris AE. Recent updates of surgical techniques and applications of free vascularized fibular graft in extremity and trunk reconstruction. Microsurgery 2011;31(03):171-175  https://doi.org/10.1002/micr.20848
  64. Liu S, Tao S, Tan J, Hu X, Liu H, Li Z. Long-term follow-up of fibular graft for the reconstruction of bone defects. Medicine (Baltimore) 2018;97(40):e12605 
  65. Capanna R, Bufalini C, Campanacci M. A new technique for reconstructions of large metadiaphyseal bone defects. Orthop Traumatol 1993;2:159-177  https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02620523
  66. Jones DB Jr, Burger H, Bishop AT, Shin AY. Treatment of scaphoid waist nonunions with an avascular proximal pole and carpal collapse. Surgical technique. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2009;91(Suppl 2):169-183  https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.I.00444
  67. Tonoli C, Bechara AHS, Rossanez R, Belangero WD, Livani B. Use of the vascularized iliac-crest flap in musculoskeletal lesions. BioMed Res Int 2013;2013:237146 
  68. Harpf C, Gabl M, Reinhart C, et al. Small free vascularized iliac crest bone grafts in reconstruction of the scaphoid bone: a retrospective study in 60 cases. Plast Reconstr Surg 2001;108(03):664-674  https://doi.org/10.1097/00006534-200109010-00010
  69. Sakai K, Doi K, Kawai S. Free vascularized thin corticoperiosteal graft. Plast Reconstr Surg 1991;87(02):290-298  https://doi.org/10.1097/00006534-199102000-00011
  70. Oh C, Pulos N, Bishop AT, Shin AY. Intraoperative anatomy of the vascular supply to the medial femoral condyle. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 2019;72(09):1503-1508  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjps.2019.05.016
  71. Yamamoto H, Jones DB Jr, Moran SL, Bishop AT, Shin AY. The arterial anatomy of the medial femoral condyle and its clinical implications. J Hand Surg Eur Vol 2010;35(07):569-574  https://doi.org/10.1177/1753193410364484
  72. Ziegler T, Kamolz L-P, Vasilyeva A, Schintler M, Neuwirth M, Parvizi D. Descending genicular artery. Branching patterns and measuring parameters: a systematic review and meta-analysis of several anatomical studies. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 2018;71(07):967-975  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjps.2018.03.005
  73. Iorio ML, Masden DL, Higgins JP. Cutaneous angiosome territory of the medial femoral condyle osteocutaneous flap. J Hand Surg Am 2012;37(05):1033-1041  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhsa.2012.02.033
  74. Hsu C-C, Tseng J, Lin Y-T. Chimeric medial femoral condyle osteocutaneous flap for reconstruction of multiple metacarpal defects. J Hand Surg Am 2018;43(08):781.e1-781.e9  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhsa.2018.02.007
  75. Burger HK, Windhofer C, Gaggl AJ, Higgins JP. Vascularized medial femoral trochlea osteocartilaginous flap reconstruction of proximal pole scaphoid nonunions. J Hand Surg Am 2013;38(04):690-700  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhsa.2013.01.036
  76. Higgins JP, Burger HK. Osteochondral flaps from the distal femur: expanding applications, harvest sites, and indications. J Reconstr Microsurg 2014;30(07):483-490  https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0034-1372484
  77. Higgins JP, Burger HK. Medial femoral trochlea osteochondral flap: applications for scaphoid and lunate reconstruction. Clin Plast Surg 2020;47(04):491-499  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cps.2020.06.004
  78. Hugon S, Koninckx A, Barbier O. Vascularized osteochondral graft from the medial femoral trochlea: anatomical study and clinical perspectives. Surg Radiol Anat 2010;32(09):817-825  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00276-010-0629-1
  79. Kalicke T, Burger H, Muller EJ. [A new vascularized cartilague-bone-graft for scaphoid nonunion with avascular necrosis of the proximal pole. Description of a new type of surgical procedure]. Unfallchirurg 2008;111(03):201-205  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00113-007-1308-5
  80. Boghossian E, Stewart DA. The medial metaphyseal periosteal artery (MMPA): an alternate pedicle for the medial femoral trochlea flap. J Hand Surg Am 2021;46(11):1032.e1-1032.e3  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhsa.2020.10.024
  81. Hill JR, Heckmann N, McKnight B, White EA, Ghiassi A, Patel BA. Medial femoral trochlea osteochondral graft: a quantitative anatomic comparison to the proximal pole of the scaphoid. J Wrist Surg 2020;9(04):283-288  https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0040-1708862
  82. Shin JJ, Haro M, Yanke AB, et al. Topographic analysis of the capitellum and distal femoral condyle: finding the best match for treating osteochondral defects of the humeral capitellum. Arthroscopy 2015;31(05):843-849  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arthro.2014.11.039
  83. Mehio G, Morsy M, Cayci C, et al. Donor-site morbidity and functional status following medial femoral condyle flap harvest. Plast Reconstr Surg 2018;142(05):734e-741e  https://doi.org/10.1097/PRS.0000000000004886
  84. Rao SS, Sexton CC, Higgins JP. Medial femoral condyle flap donorsite morbidity: a radiographic assessment. Plast Reconstr Surg 2013;131(03):357e-362e  https://doi.org/10.1097/PRS.0b013e31827c6f38
  85. Son JH, Giladi AM, Higgins JP. Iatrogenic femur fracture following medial femoral condyle flap harvest eventually requiring total knee arthroplasty in one patient. J Hand Surg Eur Vol 2019;44(03):320-321  https://doi.org/10.1177/1753193418813687
  86. Parvizi D, Vasilyeva A, Wurzer P, et al. Anatomy of the vascularized lateral femoral condyle flap. Plast Reconstr Surg 2016;137(06):1024e-1032e  https://doi.org/10.1097/PRS.0000000000002182
  87. Wong VW, Burger HK, Iorio ML, Higgins JP. Lateral femoral condyle flap: an alternative source of vascularized bone from the distal femur. J Hand Surg Am 2015;40(10):1972-1980  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhsa.2015.06.106
  88. Higgins JP, Burger HK. The use of osteochondral flaps in the treatment of carpal disorders. J Hand Surg Eur Vol 2018;43(01):48-56  https://doi.org/10.1177/1753193417739545
  89. Windhofer CM, Anoshina M, Ivusits P, Burger HP. The free vascularized lateral femoral trochlea osteochondral graft: a reliable alternative for Stage III Kienbock's disease. J Hand Surg Eur Vol 2021;46(10):1032-1041  https://doi.org/10.1177/17531934211019349
  90. Kawamura K, Kawate K, Yajima H, Kobata Y, Takakura Y. Vascularized scapular grafting for treatment of osteonecrosis of the humeral head. J Reconstr Microsurg 2008;24(08):559-564  https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0028-1090621
  91. Swartz WM, Banis JC, Newton ED, Ramasastry SS, Jones NF, Acland R. The osteocutaneous scapular flap for mandibular and maxillary reconstruction. Plast Reconstr Surg 1986;77(04):530-545  https://doi.org/10.1097/00006534-198604000-00003
  92. Elia R, Di Taranto G, Amorosi V, et al. The versatility of the thoracodorsal artery based compositeflaps with vascularized rib and a systematic review of the literature. J Surg Oncol 2019;120(03):527-539  https://doi.org/10.1002/jso.25579
  93. Sia WT, Xu GG, Puhaindran ME, Tan BK, Cheng MHW, Chew WYC. Reconstruction of extensive soft-tissue defects with concomitant bone defects in the lower extremity with the latissimus dorsi-serratus anterior-rib free flap. J Reconstr Microsurg 2015;31(06):407-413  https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1548741
  94. Werner CML, Favre P, van Lenthe HG, Dumont CE. Pedicled vascularized rib transfer for reconstruction of clavicle nonunions with bony defects: anatomical and biomechanical considerations. Plast Reconstr Surg 2007;120(01):173-180  https://doi.org/10.1097/01.prs.0000263537.57701.8b
  95. Guelinckx PJ, Sinsel NK. The "Eve" procedure: the transfer of vascularized seventh rib, fascia, cartilage, and serratusmuscle to reconstruct difficult defects. Plast Reconstr Surg 1996;97(03):527-535  https://doi.org/10.1097/00006534-199603000-00005
  96. Thomas WO, Harris CN, Moline S, Harper LL, Parker JA. Versatility of the microvascular serratus anterior muscle vascularized rib flap (SARIB) for multifaceted requirement reconstructions. Ann Plast Surg 1998;40(01):23-27  https://doi.org/10.1097/00000637-199801000-00005
  97. Shiokawa I, Minabe T, Momosawa A, MashikoT. Muscular pedicled lateral chest composite flap-a new nonmicrosurgical option for forearm salvage. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open 2015;2(12):e267 
  98. Spiker AM, Humbyrd CJ, Osgood GM, Yang SC, Deune EG. Reconstruction of ulnar defect with vascularized rib graft: a case report. Microsurgery 2017;37(02):160-164  https://doi.org/10.1002/micr.30012
  99. Georgescu AV, Ignatiadis I, Ileana M, Irina C, Filip A, Olariu R. Long-term results after muscle-rib flap transfer for reconstruction of composite limb defects. Microsurgery 2011;31(03):218-222  https://doi.org/10.1002/micr.20857
  100. Hennerbichler A, Etzer C, Gruber S, Brenner E, Papp C, Gaber O. Lateral arm flap: analysis of its anatomy and modification using a vascularized fragment of the distal humerus. Clin Anat 2003;16(03):204-214  https://doi.org/10.1002/ca.10140
  101. Haas F, Rappl T, Koch H, Pittler P, Scharnagl E. Free osteocutaneous lateral arm flap: anatomy and clinical applications. Microsurgery 2003;23(02):87-95  https://doi.org/10.1002/micr.10112
  102. Windhofer C, Michlits W, Karlbauer A, Papp C. Treatment of segmental bone and soft-tissue defects of the forearm with the free osteocutaneous lateral arm flap. J Trauma 2011;70(05):1286-1290  https://doi.org/10.1097/TA.0b013e3182095df5
  103. Okada M, Takamatsu K, Oebisu N, Nakamura H. Reversed lateral upper arm flap with a vascularised fragment of the humerus for reconstruction of ulna shaft fracture after resection of malignant tumour: a case report. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 2011 Oct;64(10):1373-1376  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjps.2011.01.021
  104. Matev I. The osteocutaneous pedicle forearm flap. J Hand Surg [Br] 1985;10(02):179-182  https://doi.org/10.1016/0266-7681_85_90010-5
  105. Biemer E, Stock W. Total thumb reconstruction: a one-stage reconstruction using an osteo-cutaneous forearm flap. Br J Plast Surg 1983;36(01):52-55  https://doi.org/10.1016/0007-1226(83)90011-5
  106. Chacha B, Soin K, Tan KC. One stage reconstruction of intercalated defect of the thumb using the osteocutaneous radial forearm flap. J Hand Surg [Br] 1987;12(01):86-92  https://doi.org/10.1016/0266-7681_87_90066-0
  107. Yajima H, Tamai S, Ono H, Kizaki K. Vascularized bone grafts to the upper extremities. Plast Reconstr Surg 1998;101(03):727--735, discussion 736-737  https://doi.org/10.1097/00006534-199803000-00022
  108. Timmons MJ, Missotten FE, Poole MD, Davies DM. Complications of radial forearm flap donor sites. Br J Plast Surg 1986;39(02):176-178  https://doi.org/10.1016/0007-1226(86)90078-0
  109. Momberger NG, Smith J, Coleman DA. Vascularized fibular grafts for salvage reconstruction of clavicle nonunion. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 2000;9(05):389-394  https://doi.org/10.1067/mse.2000.107090
  110. Arenas-Miquelez A, Karargyris O, Olariu R, Zumstein M. Free vascularized fibular graft for reconstruction of the lateral clavicle: a case report and review of the literature. JBJS Case Connect 2019;9(04):e0330 
  111. Abarca J, Valle P, Valenti P. Clavicular reconstruction with free fibula flap: a report of four cases and review of the literature. Injury 2013;44(03):283-287  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2013.01.026
  112. Taylor GI, Seneviratne S, Jones I, White D, Mah E, Shayan R. Free vascularized fibula flap reconstruction of the clavicle combined with biceps tendon repair of the conoid ligament and customized plate stabilization of the acromioclavicular joint. Plast Reconstr Surg 2009;123(03):113e-115e  https://doi.org/10.1097/PRS.0b013e31819a34ee
  113. Lenoir H, Williams T, Kerfant N, Robert M, Le Nen D. Free vascularized fibular graft as a salvage procedure for large clavicular defect: a two cases report. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res 2013;99(07):859-863  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.otsr.2013.06.004
  114. Jaloux C, Bettex Q, Levadoux M, et al. Free vascularized medial femoral condyle corticoperiosteal flap with non-vascularized iliac crest graft for the treatment of recalcitrant clavicle non-union. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 2020;73(07):1232-1238  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjps.2020.03.018
  115. Deng AD, Innocenti M, Arora R, Gabl M, Tang JB. Vascularized small-bone transfers for fracture nonunion and bony defects. Clin Plast Surg 2020;47(04):501-520  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cps.2020.06.005
  116. Medrykowski F, Barbary S, Gibert N, Lascombes P, Dautel G. Vascularized proximal fibular epiphyseal transfer: two cases. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res 2012;98(06):728-732  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.otsr.2012.05.009
  117. Innocenti M, Delcroix L, Romano GF, Capanna R. Vascularized epiphyseal transplant. Orthop Clin North Am 2007;38(01):95-101, vii vii .  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocl.2006.10.003
  118. Ye L, Taylor GI. A 10-year follow-up of a free vascularized fibula flap clavicle reconstruction in an adult. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open 2017;5(04):e1317 
  119. Kazmers NH, Thibaudeau S, Gerety P, Lambi AG, Levin LS. Versatility of the medial femoral condyle flap for extremity reconstruction and identification of risk factors for nonunion, delayed time to union, and complications. Ann Plast Surg 2018;80(04):364-372  https://doi.org/10.1097/SAP.0000000000001332
  120. Quintero JI, Childs D, Moreno R. The medial femoral condyle free flap: an excellent option for difficult cases: case series. SAGE Open Med Case Rep 2020;8:X20933763 
  121. Landau MJ, Badash I, Yin C, Alluri RK, Patel KM. Free vascularized fibula grafting in the operative treatment of malignant bone tumors of the upper extremity: A systematic review of outcomes and complications. J Surg Oncol 2018;117(07):1432-1439  https://doi.org/10.1002/jso.25032
  122. Bilgin SS. Reconstruction of proximal humeral defects with shoulder arthrodesis using free vascularized fibular graft. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2012;94(13):e94 
  123. ClaxtonMR, ShirleyMB,BakriK,Rose PS,Moran SL,HoudekMT.Utility of the free vascularized fibula flap to reconstruct oncologic defects in the upper extremity. Anticancer Res 2020;40(05):2751-2755  https://doi.org/10.21873/anticanres.14246
  124. Stevenson JD, Doxey R, Abudu A, et al. Vascularized fibular epiphyseal transfer for proximal humeral reconstruction in children with a primary sarcoma of bone. Bone Joint J 2018;100-B(04):535-541  https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.100B4.BJJ-2017-0830.R1
  125. Kurlander DE, Shue S, Schwarz GS, Ghaznavi AM. Vascularized fibula epiphysis transfer for pediatric extremity reconstruction: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Plast Surg 2019;82(03):344-351  https://doi.org/10.1097/SAP.0000000000001615
  126. Gan AWT, Puhaindran ME, Pho RWH. The reconstruction of large bone defects in the upper limb. Injury 2013;44(03):313-317  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2013.01.014
  127. Ciclamini D, Tos P, Guzzini M, Soldati A, Crosio A, Battiston B. The medial femoral condyle free corticoperiosteal flap versus traditional bone graft for treatment of nonunions of long bones: a retrospective comparative cohort study. Injury 2019;50(Suppl 5):S54-S58  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2019.10.049
  128. Henry M. Vascularized medial femoral condyle bone graft for resistant nonunion of the distal radius. J Hand Surg Asian Pac Vol 2017;22(01):23-28  https://doi.org/10.1142/S0218810417500046
  129. Amadio PC, Moran SL. Fractures of the carpal bone. In: Green DP, editor. Operative hand surgery. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone; 2005:711-779 
  130. Pao VS, Chang J. Scaphoid nonunion: diagnosis and treatment. Plast Reconstr Surg 2003;112(06):1666-1676, quiz 1677, discussion 1678-1679  https://doi.org/10.1097/01.PRS.0000086082.13637.33
  131. Mattos D, Ko JH, Iorio ML. Wrist arthrodesis with the medial femoral condyle flap: Outcomes of vascularized bone grafting for osteomyelitis. Microsurgery 2019;39(01):32-38  https://doi.org/10.1002/micr.30368
  132. Yajima H, Tamai S, Yamauchi T, Mizumoto S. Osteocutaneous radial forearm flap for hand reconstruction. J Hand Surg Am 1999;24(03):594-603  https://doi.org/10.1053/jhsu.1999.0594
  133. Dailiana ZH, Malizos KN, Urbaniak JR. Vascularized periosteal flaps of distal forearm and hand. J Trauma 2005;58(01):76-82  https://doi.org/10.1097/01.TA.0000124269.37054.0A
  134. Del Pinal F, Garcia-Bernal FJ, Delgado J, Sanmartin M, Regalado J. Reconstruction of the distal radius facet by a free vascularized osteochondral autograft: anatomic study and report of a patient. J Hand Surg Am 2005;30(06):1200-1210  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhsa.2005.07.005
  135. Smith PJ, Goodacre TE. Free vascularised toe joint transfer for reconstruction of the metacarpo-phalangeal joint. J Hand Surg [Br] 1990;15(02):262-267  https://doi.org/10.1016/0266-7681_90_90134-P
  136. Foucher G, Lenoble E, Smith D. Free and island vascularized joint transfer for proximal interphalangeal reconstruction: a series of 27 cases. J Hand Surg Am 1994;19(01):8-16  https://doi.org/10.1016/0363-5023(94)90217-8
  137. Tsai TM, Lim BH. Free vascularized transfer of the metatarsophalangeal and proximal interphalangeal joints of the second toe for reconstruction of the metacarpophalangeal joints of the thumb and index finger using a single vascular pedicle. Plast Reconstr Surg 1996;98(06):1080-1086 https://doi.org/10.1097/00006534-199611000-00026