Acta Via Serica

Academia Via Serica (계명대학교 실크로드연구원)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Geser Khan, Chinggis Khan, or an Archetypal War Deity? On Contemporary Controversies About the Identification of Buddhist Paintings in Mongolia

  • Isabelle CHARLEUX (National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS), EPHE/PSL University)
  • Published : 2025.06.30
Download PDF
⟨ Previous Next ⟩

Abstract

When the Mongols converted to Buddhism in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, they adopted equestrian deities of Central Asian origin, venerating them for bringing health, wealth, happiness, and success in war. These deities were re-contextualized within Mongol heroic culture as archetypes of valor, strength, and power. In his analysis of offering texts dedicated to süld tenger and Chinggis Khan, Walther Heissig highlighted the confusion between these deities, who embody the Mongol's "war spirit" and possess multiple narrative identities. This paper examines a set of paintings that have become the subject of controversy in contemporary Mongolia. Nyam-Ochir, a proponent of the Buddhist veneration of Chinggis Khan, identifies them as depictions of the Mongol great ancestor. In contrast, the monastic community of Tariat Monastery in central Mongolia, which has preserved rituals dedicated to Geser (Tib. Ge sar), asserts that the paintings represent Geser Khan, a figure identified with the Chinese god Guandi during the Qing period (1691-1911). Can these images assume new identities depending on historical context, location, or ethnic group? This paper explores phenomena of superscriptions, conflations, and borrowings, analyzing the different stakes involved in the promotion of Geser Khan and Chinggis Khan in the broader context of nationalism and the revival of local identities.

Keywords

References

  1. Amogolonova, Darima D., and Tatiana D., Skrynnikova. "Chinggis Khan in the Identity Practices of Modern Buryats." Inner Asia 8, no. 2 (2006): 263–73. https://doi.org/10.1163/146481706793646747
  2. Aubin, Françoise, and Roberte Hamayon. "Alexandre, César et Gengis Khan dans les steppes d'Asie centrale" [Alexander, Cesaer, and Chinggis Khan on the Central Asian steppes]. In Les Civilisations dans le regard de l'autre, edited by Olga Weber et al. UNESCO, 2002.
  3. Auboyer, Jeannine. Dieux et démons de l'Himâlaya. Art du bouddhisme lamaïque [Gods and demons of the Himalaya: Lamaistic Buddhist art]. Paris: É dition des musées nationaux, 1977.
  4. Baatarkhuyag Avian. "Chingis khaany shüteen khörgiin tukhai" [About portraits of Chinggis Khan]. Facebook, March 13, 2018. https://www.facebook.com/bavuubahadur/posts/413990889022583/.
  5. Banzarov, Dorji. "The Black Faith or Shamanism Among the Mongols." Translated by Jan Nattier and John R. Krueger. Mongolian Studies 7 (1981–1982): 53–91.
  6. Batsaikhan, Ookhnoi. The Bogdo Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, The Last Emperor of Mongolia: The Life and Legend. Ulaanbaatar: Admon, 2016.
  7. Bell, Christopher. "Tsi'u dmar po: How a Northern Treasure God Became Ecumenical." Revue d'Études Tibétaines 62 (2022): 164–89.
  8. Berounský, Daniel. "'Soul of Enemy' and Warrior Deities (dgra bla): Two Tibetan Myths on Primordial Battle." Mongolo-Tibetica Pragesia 2, no. 2 (2009): 19–57.
  9. Birtalan, Á gnes. "Equestrian Warrior Deities in the Leder Collections: Some Aspects of the Mongolian War God." In The Mongolian Collections: Retracing Hans Leder, edited by MariaKatharina Lang and Stefan Bauer. Vienna: Austrian Academy of Sciences, 2013. 
  10. Bongard-Levin, Grigorii M. Ikonografiya Vadzhrayani [Vajrayāna iconography]. Moscow: Dizain, 2003.
  11. Bulgan, T. Chinggis Khaan ba Mongol burkhany shashin [Chinggis Khan and Mongol Buddhism]. Ulaanbaatar: Ö ndör Gegeen Zanabazar Buddhist University of Gandantegchenling Monastery, 2006.
  12. Burchardi, Anne. Catalogue of Tibetan Mandalas and Other Images. Copenhagen: NIAS press, 2016.
  13. Charleux, Isabelle. "Chinggis Khan: Ancestor, Buddha, or Shaman? On the Uses and Abuses of the Portrait of Chinggis Khan." Mongolian Studies 31 (2009): 207–58.
  14. Charleux, Isabelle. "Critères changeants d'authenticité: sur quelques portraits anciens et modernes de Chinggis Khan dans le monde mongol" [Changing criterions of authenticity: On several ancient and modern portraits of Chinggis Khan in the Mongol world]. In Misceallanea Asiatica. Mélanges en l'honneur de Françoise Aubin, edited by Denise Aigle, Isabelle Charleux, Vincent Goossaert, and Roberte Hamayon. Sankt Augustin: Monumenta Serica, 2011.
  15. "'Chingis khaany san' khemeekh nomyg mongol kheleer unshiv" [A Mongolian book "Incense-offering to Chinggis Khan" was read]. Solongo News, November 8, 2018, accessed October 4, 2022. Website no longer available. https://www.solongonews.mn/content/read/29150.htm.
  16. Chiodo, Elisabetta. "'The Book of Offerings to the Holy Cinggis Qagan': A Mongolian Ritual Text." Zentral-Asiastische Studien 23, no. 2 (1992–1993): 84–144.
  17. Chiodo, Elisabetta. "Altan γandari: A Journal on Ordos Culture." In Antoine Mostaert (1881–1971), C.I.C.M. Missionary and Scholar: Volume One, Papers, edited by Klaus Sagaster. Leuven: Ferdinand Verbiest Foundation, 1999.
  18. Chou, Wen-shing. "Bodhisattva Emperors of the Manchu Qing Dynasty." In Faith and Empire: Art and Politics in Tibetan Buddhism, edited by Karl Debreczeny. New York: Rubin Museum of Art, 2019.
  19. Czaja, Olaf. "Thangkas und Amulettdruck" [Thangkas and amulet prints]. In Buddhas Leuchten & Kaisers Pracht. Die Pekinger Sammlung Hermann Speck von Sternburg, vol. 1, edited by Claus Deimel and Wolf-Dietrich Freiherr Speck von Sternburg. Leipzig: GRASSI Museum für Völkerkunde zu Leipzig, 2008.
  20. Dalaichoinkhor Van Tariatyn Khüree. Facebook, accessed April 10, 2022. Page no longer available. https://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=100015218948815.
  21. Duara, Prasenjit. "Superscribing Symbols: The Myth of Guandi, Chinese God of War." The Journal of Asian Studies 47, no. 4 (1988): 778–95. https://doi.org/10.2307/2057852
  22. Documentation of Mongolia Monasteries. "Tariatyn Züün Khüree," accessed December 23, 2024. https://www.mongoliantemples.org/mn/2020-07-08-04-38-38/old-aimags-inmongolian-mn/76?view=oldtemplemn.
  23. Documentation of Mongolia Monasteries. "Tugiin Khiid," accessed December 23, 2024. https://www.mongoliantemples.org/mn/2020-07-08-04-38-38/old-aimags-in-mongolianmn/361?view=oldtemplemn.
  24. Dugarov, Bayir. "Geser boγda-yin sang: A little-known Buryat-Mongolian sutra." In Writing in the Altaic World. Proceedings of the 41st Annual Meeting of the Permanent Altaistic Conference, edited by Juha Janhunen and Volker Rybatzki. Helsinki: Finnish Oriental Society, 1999.
  25. Enkhtsetseg, B. "G. Nyam-Ochir: Oiryn üyed 'gal togoo' mash khaluun bolsnyg ukhamsarlazh baina" [G. Nyam-Ochir: I realize that the "kitchen" has become very hot recently]. UB Life, December 2, 2020. https://ub.life/p/23896.
  26. Essen, Gerd-Wolfgang, and Tsering Tashi Thingo. Die Götter des Himalaya – Buddhistische Kunst Tibets. Die Sammlung Gerd-Wolfgang Essen [The gods of the Himalayas – Buddhist art of Tibet. The Gerd-Wolfgang Essen collection]. 2 vol. München: Prestel, 1989.
  27. Even, Marie-Dominique. Chants de chamanes mongols [Songs of Mongol shamans]. Vol. 19–20 (1988–1989) of É tudes mongoles et sibériennes. Labethno, University of Paris X, 1992.
  28. FitzHerbert, Solomon George. "The Geluk Gesar: Guandi, the Chinese God of War, in Tibetan Buddhism from the 18th to 20th Centuries." Revue d'Études Tibétaines 53 (2020): 178–266.
  29. Fleming, Zara, and Jadamba Lkhagvademchig Shastri, eds. Mongolian Buddhist Art: Masterpieces from the Museums of Mongolia. Vol. 1, Thangkas, Embroideries, and Appliqués. Serindia Publications, 2011.
  30. Franke, Herbert. "From Tribal Chieftain to Universal Emperor and God: The Legitimation of the Yüan Dynasty." In China under Mongol Rule, edited by Franke Herbert. Variorum, (1978) 1994.
  31. "G. Nyam-Ochir: Bogd khaant Mongol uls Chingis khaanyg shütekh üzel deer baiguulagdsan yum" [G. Nyam-Ochir: Mongolia in the Bogd Khanate (period) was founded on the cult of Chinggis Khan]. Eagle.mn, December 20, 2021. https://eagle.mn/r/96045.
  32. Gazizova, Valeriya. "New Buddhists, 'Treasure' Discoveries, and (Re)constructed Protective Deities of Kalmykia." Inner Asia 21 (2019): 61–82. https://doi.org/10.1163/22105018-12340116
  33. Gazizova, Valeriya. "Military Might and Healing Power: Appropriation and Representations of the Goddess Palden Lhamo in Kalmykia." É tudes mongoles et sibériennes, centrasiatiques et tibétaines 53 (2022): https://journals.openedition.org/emscat/5684.
  34. Gerasimova, Ksenia M. "Sinkretizm kul'ta Dalha" [Syncretism of the cult of Dalha]. In Buddizm i tradicionnye verovaniya naradov Tsentral'noi Azii, Sibirskoe ordelenie, edited by K. M. Gerasimova. Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1981.
  35. Gerasimova, Ksenia M. "De la signification du nombre 13 dans le culte des obo" [The signification of the number 13 in the ovoo cult]. Translated by Roberte Hamayon and Assia Popova. É tudes mongoles et sibériennes 12 (1981): 163–75. https://doi.org/10.3406/emong.1981.973
  36. "Geser khaan, Chingis khaan mön üü?" [Is it Chinggis Khan or Geser Khan?]. Art Medee, February 20, 2022, accessed October 4, 2022. Website no longer available. https://ardmedee.com/31737/. Republished from the Facebook site of "Dalaichoinkhor Van Tariatyn Khüree," September 29, 2017, accessed April 10, 2022.
  37. Gongor, Chuluundorzhiin. Tüükhend mönkhörsön Erdene zuu [Eternal Erdene Zuu]. Ulaanbaatar: Soyombo Print, 2023.
  38. Hamayon, Roberte N. "Shamanism, Buddhism, and Epic Hero-ism: Which Supports the Identity of the Post-Soviet Buryats?" Central Asian Survey 17, no. 1 (1998): 51–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/02634939808401023
  39. Heissig, Walther. "Ein Ms-Fragment zum Kult der Dayisud-un Tngri und andere mongolische Fragmente im Ethnographischen Museum Antwerpen" [A manuscript fragment on the cult of Dayisud-un Tngri and other Mongolian fragments in the Ethnographic Museum, Antwerp]. Central Asiatic Journal 9 (1964): 190–202.
  40. Heissig, Walther. Mongolische volksreligiöse und folkloristische Texte aus europäischen Bibliotheken mit einer Einleitung und Glossar [Mongolian folk religious and folkloristic texts from European libraries with an introduction and glossary]. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1966.
  41. Heissig, Walther. The Religions of Mongolia. Translated by Geoffrey Samuel. Routledge and Kegan Paul (1970), 1980.
  42. Heissig, Walther. "Ein Text zum Kult des Sülde Tngri" [A text on the cult of Sülde Tngri]. In Scholia, Beiträge zur Turkologie und Zentralasienkunde, edited by Annemarie von Gabain, Klaus Röhrborn, and Horst Wilfrid Brands. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1981.
  43. Heissig, Walther. Geser Studien: Untersuchungen zu den Erzählstoffen in den "neuen" Kapiteln des mongolischen Geser-Zyklus [Geser studies: Investigations into the narrative materials in the "new" chapters of the Mongolian Geser cycle]. Opladen: Westdeutscher, 1983.
  44. Heissig, Walther. "Unbekannte Cinggis Khan-Thanka" [Unknown Chinggis Khan thangkas]. Zentralasiastische Studien 17 (1984): 19–28.
  45. Heller, Amy. "Armor and Weapons in the Iconography of Tibetan Buddhist Deities." In Warriors of the Himalaya: Rediscovering the Arms and Armor of Tibet, edited by Donald La Rocca. Metropolitan Museum and Yale University Press, 2006.
  46. Himalayan Art Resources(HAR), accessed December 23, 2024. https://www.himalayanart.org/.
  47. Hummel, Siegbert. Eurasian Mythology in the Tibetan Epic of Ge-sar. Translated by Guido Vogliotti. Dharamsala: Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, 1998.
  48. Huntington, Eric. Creating the Universe: Depictions of the Cosmos in Himalayan Buddhism. University of Washington Press, 2019.
  49. Hurcha (Qurca), N. "Attempts to Buddhicize the Cult of Chinggis Khan." Inner Asia 1, no. 1 (1999): 45–57. https://doi.org/10.1163/146481709793646384
  50. Hürelbaatar, A. "'Tradition' as Differently Practiced by the Buryat-Mongols of Russia and China." PhD dissertation, Department of Social Anthropology, University of Cambridge, 2002.
  51. Jamtsarano, Ts. "Description of the Three {Dzū} and the {Lavran} in the Erdene Zuu Monastery by Ts. Jamtsarano." In In the Heartof Mongolia: 100th Anniversary of W. Kotwicz's Expedition to Mongolia in 1912, edited by Jerzy Tulisow, Osamu Inoue, Agata BarejaStarzyńska, and Ewa Dziurzyńska. Cracow: Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2012.
  52. Kerin, Melissa R. Art and Devotion at a Buddhist Temple in the Indian Himalaya. Indiana University Press, 2015.
  53. Konagaya, Yuki, ed. Yapon dah' Mongolyn tüükhend kholbogdokh soyolyn dursgalt züils [Cultural treasures related to the history of Mongolia in Japan]. Ulaanbaatar: Admon, 2020.
  54. Lambrecht, Miriam. Kunst uit Tibet. De collectie van de Koninklijke Musea voor Kunst en Geschiedenis [Art from Tibet. The collection of the Royal Museums of Art and History]. Brussels: Koninklijke Musea voor Kunst en Geschiedenis, 2005.
  55. Lipton, Barbara, and Nima Dorjee Ragnubs. Treasures of Tibetan Art: Collections of the Jacques Marchais Museum of Tibetan Art. Oxford University Press, 1996.
  56. Lkhamsürengiin, Khürelbaatar. Chinggis Khan ba Mongol burkhany shashin [Chinggis Khan and Mongol Buddhism]. Ulaanbaatar: Ö ndör Gegeen Zanabazar Buddhist University of Gandantegchenling Monastery, 2006.
  57. Luczanits,Christian. "Establishing an Iconography:TheCase of EarlyTibetanRepresentations of the Medicine Buddhas." Zangxue xuekan 藏学学刊 22, no. 1 (2020): 119–47.
  58. Meinert, Carmen, ed. Buddha in the Yurt: Buddhist Art from Mongolia. 2 vols. Munich: Hirmer Verlag, 2011.
  59. Müller, Claudius, and Henriette Pleiger, eds. Dschingis Khan und seine Erben. Das Weltreich der Mongolen [Chinggis Khan and his heirs. The Mongol Empire]. München: Hirmer Verlag, 2005.
  60. Museum zu Allerheiligen. Die Mongolei. Begegnungen mit eine Volk und seiner Geschichte [Mongolia: Encounterswith a people and its history]. Schaffhausen: Museum zu Allerheiligen, 1990.
  61. Nаrаntuyaа, Ts., and B. Shür. Nüüdelch Mongolyn sod büteelüüdiin deezhees. Sodnomyn Gаnsükhiin khuviin tsugluulgааs [Masterpieces of nomadic Mongolia: Collections of Gansukh Sodnom]. Ulaanbaatar Print, 2010.
  62. National Library of Mongolia. "Chingis khaan ba Mongolyn Burkhany shashny öv üzesgelen tailbar" [Chinggis Khan and Mongolian Buddhist heritage exhibition]. Video, 28 min., 39 sec., November 15, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xaOoYoHtyJo&t=67s&ab_channel=NationalLibraryofMongolia.
  63. National Library of Mongolia. "Khögnö khaany khiidiin Chinggis khaany shüteen khörög" [The portrait-object of worship of Chinggis Khan from Khögnö khaan Monastery]. Video, 10 min., 48 sec., November 15, 2020. https://m.youtube.com/watch?feature=youtu.be&v=lEgy7VUbNrs.
  64. Nebesky-Wojkowitz,Renéde. Oracles and Demons of Tibet: The Cult and Iconography of the Tibetan Protective Deities. Oxford University Press (1956), 1996.
  65. Nyam-Ochir, G. "Geser, Zhangar ba Ezen Bogdyn delgemel khörög" [Scroll portrait of Geser, Jangar, and Ezen Bogd (Chinggis Khan)]. Time.mn, April 25, 2016. Website no longer available. http://time.mn/iLZ.html.
  66. Nyam-Ochir, G. "Chingis khaany burkhanchilsan khörög khiigeed tailbar" [Buddhicized portrait of Chinggis Khan and its description]. Time.mn, October 28, 2016. Website no longer available. https://time.mn/jSD.html.
  67. Nyam-Ochir, G. Chingis khaany shüteen khörög [Chinggis Khan's iconography]. Ulaanbaatar: Mönkhiin Ü seg, 2017.
  68. Oyuunbileg, Zunduin. Maimaa khot [Maimaa City]. Ulaanbaatar: Admon Print, 2021.
  69. Pegg, Carole. Mongolian Music, Dance, and Oral Narrative: Performing Diverse Identities. University of Washington Press, 2001.
  70. Pozdneyev, Aleksei M. Mongolia and the Mongols. Vol. 1 (1892) and vol. 2 (1893) in one vol. London: Curzon Press (1971 and 1977), 2006.
  71. Rachewiltz, Igor de, and Narangoa Li. Joro's Youth: The First Part of the Mongolian Epic of Geser Khan. Canberra: ANU Press, 2017.
  72. Ramble, Charles. "Pattern of Places." In Sacred Spaces and Powerful Places in Tibetan Culture: A Collection of Essays, edited by Toni Huber. Dharamsala: Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, 1999.
  73. Rinchen, B. "Zum Kult Tschinggis-khans bei den Mongolen" [On the cult of Chinggis Khan among the Mongols]. In Opuscula ethnologica memoriae Ludovici Bíró sacra, edited by Tibor Bodrogi and Lajos Boglár. Budapest: Akademiai Kiadó, 1959.
  74. Rintchen (Rinchen), B. "En marge du culte de Guesser Khan en Mongolie" [On the fringe of the Geser Khan cult in Mongolia]. Journal de la SociétéFinno-Ougrienne 60 (1958): 1–51.
  75. Rintchen (Rinchen), B. Les Matériaux pour l'étude du chamanisme mongol: I. Sources littéraires [Material for the study of Mongolian shamanism. Vol. 1, literary sources]. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1959.
  76. Sagaster, Klaus. "Ein Dokument des Tschinggis-Khan-Kults in der Khalkha-Mongolei" [A document of the cult of Chinggis Khan in Khalkh Mongolia]. In Collectanea Mongolica. Festschrift für Professor Dr. Rintchen zum 60. Geburstag, edited by Walther Heissig. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1966.
  77. Sagaster, Klaus. Die Weisse Geschichte (Caγan teüke). Eine mongolische Quelle zur Lehre von den Beiden Ordnungen: Religionen und Staat in Tibet und der Mongolei [The White History (Caγan teüke). A Mongolian source on the doctrine of the Two Orders: Religions and state in Tibet and Mongolia]. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1976.
  78. Serruys, Henry (CICM). "A Prayer to Cinggis-Qan." É tudes mongoles et sibériennes 16 (1985): 17–36. https://doi.org/10.3406/emong.1985.1003
  79. Skrynnikova, Tatiana D. "Sülde—The Basic Idea of Chinggis-Khan Cult." Acta Orientalia Hungaricae Academiae Scientiarum 46, no. 1 (1992–1993): 51–60.
  80. Sonsonbaram, "Maidar. Tangutskiy Geser protiv mongol'skogo Dzhangara, ili istoriya portreta Chingiskhana" [Tangut Geser against the Mongol Jangar, or the history of the portrait of Chinggis Khan]. ARD, April 25, 2016. https://asiarussia.ru/news/12106/.
  81. Srba, Ondřej, and Michael Schwarz eds. Mongolian Ritual Texts in Manuscript Collections in the Czech Republic. Part 1. Brno: Mazaryk University Press, 2022.
  82. Stein, Rolf A. "Peintures tibétaines de la vie de Gesar" [Tibetan paintings of the life of Gesar]. Arts asiatiques 5, no. 4 (1958): 243–71.
  83. Stein, Rolf A. Recherches sur l'épopée et le barde au Tibet [Research on epics and poets in Tibet]. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1959.
  84. Tanaka, Kimiaki. Art of Thangka: From the Hahn Kwang-ho Collection. Seoul: The Hahn Cultural Foundation, 1999.
  85. Tankhai Bandi (G. Nyam-Ochir). Facebook, accessed April 10, 2022. https://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=100008588716629.
  86. Tatár, Maria M. "New Data About the Cult of Činggis Qan's Standard." In Altaica Osloensia: Proceedings from the 32nd Meeting of the Permanent International Altaistic Conference, Oslo, June 12–16, 1989, edited by Bernt Brendemoen. Universitetsforlaget, 1990.
  87. Taube, Erika, and Manfred Taube. Schamanen und Rhapsoden, die Geistige Kultur der alten Mongolei [Shamans and rhapsodists, the spiritual culture of ancient Mongolia]. Leipzig: Koehler and Amelang, 1983.
  88. Tsendina, A. D. "Mif o Chingis-khane kak o pokrovitele buddizma" [The myth of Chinggis Khan as protector of Buddhism]. Altaica 4 (2000): 157–63.
  89. Uspenskiy, Vladimir. "About the Buddhist Protective Deity of the Descendants of Chinggis Khan." Paper presented at the Sixth International Seminar on Tibetan Studies, Beijing, China, May 2016.
  90. Wallace, Vesna. "What Do Protective Deities, Mongolian Heroes, and Fast Steeds Have in Common?" In Buddhism in Mongolian History, Culture, and Society, edited by Vesna Wallace. Oxford University Press, 2015.
  91. Wallace, Vesna. "Envisioning a Mongolian Buddhist Identity Through Chinggis Khan." In Buddhism in Mongolian History, Culture, and Society, edited by Vesna Wallace. Oxford University Press, 2015.
  92. Watt, Jeff. "Gesar Battle Helmet." Himalayan Art Resources, November 2011. https://www.himalayanart.org/search/set.cfm?setID=2774.