• Journal of Environmental Health Sciences
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• v.48 no.2
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• pp.96-105
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• 2022

Background: Pyrethroid insecticides account for more than 30% of the global insecticide market and are frequently used in agricultural settings and residential and public pest control among the general population. While several animal studies have suggested that exposure to pyrethroids can alter glucose homeostasis, there is only limited evidence of the association between environmental pyrethroid exposure and diabetes in humans. Objectives: This study aimed to report environmental 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA) concentrations in urine and evaluate its association with the risk of diabetes in Korean adults. Methods: We analyzed data from the Korean National Environmental Health Survey (KoNEHS) Cycle 2 (2012~2014) and Cycle 3 (2015~2017). A total of 10,123 participants aged ≥19 years were included. Multiple logistic regressions were used to calculate the odds ratios (ORs) for diabetes according to log-transformed urinary 3-PBA levels. We also evaluated age, sex, education, monthly income, marital status, alcohol drinking, physical activity, urinary cotinine, body mass index, and sampling season as potential effect modifiers of these associations. Results: After adjusting for all the covariates, we found significant dose-response relationships between urinary 3-PBA as quartile and the prevalence of diabetes in pooled data of KoNEHS Cycles 2 and 3. In subgroup analyses, the adverse effects of pyrethroid exposure on diabetes were significantly stronger among those aged 19~39 years (p-interaction<0.001) and those who consumed high levels of cotinine (p-interaction=0.020). Conclusions: Our findings highlight the potential diabetes risk of environmental exposure to pyrethroids and should be confirmed in large prospective studies in different populations in the future.

• Environmental Analysis Health and Toxicology
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• v.30
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• pp.9.1-9.5
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• 2015

Objectives Pyrethroid pesticides are among the most commonly using insecticides in South Korean households and have been the subject of considerable interest among public health professionals for their potential health effects. The objective of this study is to examine the level of urinary 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA) among elementary students in South Korea. Methods We conducted a cross-sectional study to evaluate pyrethroid pesticide exposure levels by measuring the urinary metabolites of 3-PBA using a gas chromatographymass spectrometry method in March 2011. Study participants were 70 Asan-area and Incheon-area elementary students. Results All respondents had values above the detection limit, and the geometric means of 3-PBA in all children were $1.85{\mu}g/L$ and $1.46{\mu}g/g$ creatinine. Children with the top 10% urinary levels of 3-PBA were more likely to be girls, under nine years of age, living in a rural area, and living in a residential type apartment. Conclusions South Korean children have a higher concentration of urinary 3-PBA compared with those of other countries. Further research identifying exposure pathways and intervention efforts to reduce environmental pesticide use are needed in South Korea.

• Korean Journal of Environmental Agriculture
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• v.14 no.2
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• pp.202-212
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• 1995

In order to elucidate the degrading characteristics of the pyrethroid acaricide-insecticide, acrinathrin in two different types of soils, Soil A(pH, 5.8; organic matter, 3.4%; C.E.C., 115 mmol(+)/kg soil; texture, sandy loam) and Soil B(pH, 5.7; organic matter, 2.0%; C.E.C., 71 mmol(+)/kg soil; texture, sandy loam), residualities of the non-labeled compound under the field and laboratory conditions, extractability with organic solvents and formation of non-extractable bound residues, and degradabilities of [$^{14}C$]acrinathrin as a function of aging temperature and aging period were investigated. The half lives of acrinathrin in Soil A treated once and twice were about 18 and 22 days and in Soil B about 13 and 15 days, respectively, in the field, whereas, in the laboratory, those in Soil A and B were about 36 and 18 days, respectively, suggesting that the compound would be non-persistent in the environment. The amounts of $^{14}CO_2$ evolved from [$^{14}C$]acrinathrin in Soil A and B during the aging period of 24 weeks were 81 and 62%, respectively, of the originally applied $^{14}C$ activity, and those of the non-extractable soil-bound residues of [$^{14}C$]acrinathrin were about 70% of the total $^{14}C$ activity remaining in both soils, increasing gradually with the aging period. Degradation of [$^{14}C$]acrinathrin in both soils increased with the aging temperature. Three degradation products of m/z 198(3-phenoxy benzaldehyde), m/z 214(3-phenoxybenzoic acid), and m/z 228(methyl 3-phenoxybenzoate) as well as an unknown were detected by autoradiography of acetone extracts of both soils treated with [$^{14}C$]acrinathrin and aged for 15, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 150 days, respectively, and the degradation pattern of acrinathrin was identical in both soils. Acrinathrin in soil turned out to be degraded to 3-phenoxybenzaldehyde cyanohydrin by hydrolytic cleavage of the ester linkage adjacent to the $^{14}C$ with a cyano group, the removal of hydrogen cyanide therefrom led to the formation of 3-phenoxybenzaldehyde as one of the major products, and the subsequent oxidation of the aldehyde to 3-phenoxybenzoic acid, followed by decarboxylation would lead to the evolution of $^{14}CO_2$.

• Environmental Analysis Health and Toxicology
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• v.30
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• pp.2.1-2.9
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• 2015

Objectives This study aimed to evaluate the association between presence of depression symptoms and the exposure level to insecticides among aged population in rural area, determined via measured levels of urinary 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA), after controlling for socioeconomic confounding factors. Methods Using a cross-sectional study design, we randomly recruited participants for our study (161 male and 239 female) from rural areas of Asan, Chungnam, Korea. Environmental risk factor exposure was assessed using a questionnaire, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to analyze urinary 3-PBA levels. We used a logistic regression analysis to assess the association of urinary 3-PBA levels with the presence of self-reported depression symptoms. Results After controlling for creatinine levels, the median (interquartile range) concentration of 3-PBA was approximately 1.5 times (p<0.05) higher among female (1.54 [0.90 to 2.35]) ${\mu}g/g$) than among male (1.06 [0.64 to 1.81] ${\mu}g/g$). Our study found that among female participants, the unit increase in 3-PBA levels exhibited a likely positive association (odds ratio, 1.12; 95% confidence interval, 1.00 to 1.25) with an increased risk of presence of self-reported depression symptoms, after adjusting for socioeconomic insurance type, daily physical condition, marital status, smoking status, and age. Conclusions Given our finding of a potential association between the presence of self-reported depression symptoms and 3-PBA levels, precautions should be considered to minimize exposure to insecticides and thus protect the health of aged residents in rural areas.

• The Korean Journal of Pesticide Science
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• v.11 no.2
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• pp.87-94
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• 2007

Pyrethroid insecticide have widely been used for agricultural sector and residential environments. To assess the exposure of insecticide which is absorbed through skin the analysis of urinary metabolite is essential. At present, the urinary 3-PBA was analyzed using liquid-phase extraction. But LPE have many limitations, such as long pre-treatment time and low recovery. So, this study was conducted to determine the optimum conditions for analysing 3-PBA in urine using solid phase extraction. Furthermore, this study intend to investigate the relation of concentrations of pyrethroid, deltamethrin in air and 3-PBA in urine. The optimum condition for hydrolysis was found to be done with hydrochloric acid for one hour. The recovery rates of 3-PBA were $84.6%{\pm}1.2%$, $54.8{\pm}0.9%$, $99.8{\pm}1.2%$ with XAD-2, XAD-7, XAD-16 using as the aborbents and acetone as eluents respectively. But acetonitrle and methanol gave low recovery rate and methyl cellosolve could not elute the compound. The amount of acetone for elution were 6mL, 9mL, 3mL for XAD-2, XAD-7, XAD-16 as absorbents respectively. The non-absorbed rates was $0.8{\pm}0.5%$, and $0.7{\pm}0.3%$ under XAD-16, mesh size 140-200, amount of resin 1.4g and the flow rate of eluent was 0.1mL/min. In the concentration process, we obtained 11 times higher concentration of material. The amounts of urinary 3-PBA were. The LODs of 3-PBA and deltamethrin were 0.004 mg/L, 0.038 mg/L, respectively. The further research of minute monitoring which include spray pattern, environmental condition is needed And more research about the relation between total pyrethroid exposure and urinary various metabolite are also necessary.

• Korean Journal of Environmental Agriculture
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• v.14 no.2
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• pp.186-201
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• 1995

In order to elucidate the fate of the residues of the pyrethroid acaricide-insecticide, acrinathrin in soil, maize plants were grown for one month on the specially-made pots filled with two different types of soils containing fresh and one-month-aged residues of [$^{14}C$]acrinathrin, respectively. The mineralization of [$^{14}C$]acrinathrin to $^{14}CO_2$ during the one-month period of aging and of maize cultivation amounted to $23{\sim}24%$ and $24{\sim}33%$, respectively, of the original $^{14}C$ activities. At harvest after one-month growing, the shoots and roots contained less than 0.1% and 1% of the originally applied $^{14}C$ activity, respectively, whereas the $^{14}C$ activity remaining in soil was $65{\sim}80%$ in both soils. Three degradation products with m/z 198(3-phenoxybenzaldehyde), m/z 214(3-phenoxybenzoic acid), and m/z 228(methyl 3-phenoxybenzoate) besides an unknown were identified from acetone extracts of both soils without and with maize plants after treatment of [$^{14}C$]acrinathrin, by autoradiography and GC-MS, and those with m/z 225(3-phenoxybenzaldehyde cyanohydrin) and m/z 198 (3-phenoxybenzaldehyde) from acetone extract of the Soil A treated with 50 ppm acrinathrin and grown with maize plants for 30 days were identified by mass spectrometry. These results suggested that the hydrolytic cleavage of the ester linkage adjacent to the $^{14}C$ with a cyano group, forming 3-phenoxybenzaldehyde cyanohydrin. The removal of hydrogen cyanide therefrom leads to the formation of 3-phenoxybenzaldehyde as one of the major products. The subsequent oxidation of the aldehyde to 3-phenoxybenzoic acid, followed by decarboxylation would evolve $^{14}CO_2$. Solvent extractability of the soils where maize plants were grown for 1 month and/or [$^{14}C$]acrinathrin was aged for 1 month was less than 31% of the original $^{14}C$ activity and over 95% of the total $^{14}C$ activity in soil extracts was distributed in the organic phase. Accordingly, acrinathrin turned out to be degraded rapidly in both soils and be bound to soil constituents as well, not being available to crops.

• Journal of Environmental Health Sciences
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• v.43 no.4
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• pp.280-297
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• 2017

Objectives: We assessed pesticide exposure levels according to cultivation and crop type and investigated agricultural factors related to exposure. Methods: The participants, 341 male and 127 female farmers, were divided into three groups by cultivation crop type: chili greenhouse, cucumber greenhouse, and orchard. We collected questionnaires, socioeconomic characteristics and agricultural factors, and spot urine. Pesticide exposure was examined using four organophosphate and four pyrethroids urinary metabolites: dimethylphosphate, dimethylthiophosphate, diethylphosphate, diethylthiophosphate, Cis and Trans-3-(2-2dichlorovinyl)-2, 2-dimethylcyclopropane carboxylic acid, 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA), Cis-3-(2-2dibrmovinyl)-2, and 2-dimethylcyclopropane carboxylic acid. Each metabolite was summed ${\Sigma}DAP$ and ${\Sigma}PY$ according to the chemical class. Results: Urinary metabolite detection rates and concentrations were similar between the greenhouse groups, but the orchard group was different. Similar 3-PBA detection rates were found in the three groups, but the geometric mean was very high in the orchard group compared to the two greenhouse groups. 3-PBA concentration in the orchard group was $4.11{\mu}g/g$ creatinine; the chili and cucumber greenhouse groups were 1.27 and $1.16{\mu}g/g$ creatinine, respectively. ${\Sigma}DAP$ was significantly associated with cultivation crop type and seasonal variation, but ${\Sigma}PY$ was not relevant. Conclusions: Our results suggest that cultivation and crop type may be correlated with different pesticide types and exposure levels. Furthermore, seasonal factors were related as potential factors influencing the level of organophosphate metabolites, but not for pyrethroid metabolites.

• Korean Journal of Environmental Agriculture
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• v.36 no.4
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• pp.293-298
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• 2017

BACKGROUND: Pyrethroids (PYRs) are a widely used insecticide in agriculture and household area. In mammals, PYRs such as deltamethrin is metabolized to 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA) in liver that is mainly excreted in urine. This study is designed to single exposure of deltamethrin to rats in a dose-dependent manner and identify the correlation between deltamethrin exposure and its metabolite (3-PBA) in urine. METHODS AND RESULTS: Exposure levels of deltamethrin were control (0 mg/kg bw), low (0.0705 mg/kg bw), medium (0.705 mg/kg bw) and high (7.05 mg/kg bw) dose. Low concentration was derived by ussing Korea predictive operator exposure model (KoPOEM). Dermal exposure persisted for 6 h, and urine specimens were collected for 24 h. The urine matrix was removed after a series of procedures and 3-PBA was analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. CONCLUSION: There was a strong correlation ($R^2=0.83$) between the amount of oral exposure to delta me thrin and urinary levelof3-PBAexcreted. In dermal exposure groups of deltamethrin except high-dose, also there was a good correlation between urinary 3-PBA and deltamethrin exposure, but not stronger than in oral deltamethrin exposure groups. Based on these results, therefore, the amount of 3-PBA in urine can be used as a good monitoring indicator that reflexing the exposure level of deltamethrin to human body.