• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.18 no.11
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• pp.1646-1654
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• 2005

The present study was carried out to develop cholesterol-reduced and gamma linolenic acid (GLA)-added butter and to examine the changes in chemical and sensory properties, and cholesterol lowering effect of GLA addition. The cholesterol removal rate reached 93.2% by $\beta$-cyclodextrin in butter before GLA addition. The thiobarbituric acid value of cholesterol-reduced and GLA-added butter increased slowly up to 4 week and plauteaued thereafter. TBA value was significantly increased with 2% GLA addition, compared with no GLA addition. The production of short-chain free fatty acids (FFA) increased with storage in all treatments. From 4 weeks storage, the amount of short-chain FFA in 2% GLA-added group was significantly higher than those in other groups. Among sensory characteristics, color, greasiness and overall acceptability were mostly affected by GLA addition, however, the rancidity value of 2% GLA addition was significantly different from those of control and GLA-unadded and cholesterol-reduced butter at 0, 6 and 8 week storage. Among groups, no difference was found in texture in all storage periods. The smallest increase of total blood cholesterol in rats was found in the group fed 2% GLA-added and cholesterol-reduced butter for 8 week, compared with that in controls. The present results showed the possibility of cholesterol-reduced and GLA-added butter development without much difference in chemical, rheological and sensory properties, and indicated a slow increase effect on blood total cholesterol in rats.

• Journal of Embryo Transfer
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• v.30 no.2
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• pp.83-89
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• 2015

The sexual maturation occurred by the changes of steroid hormones was known to sex-dependently and/or age-dependently regulate the lipid metabolism in various animal species. Our current study demonstrates that lipid and its functional fatty acids can be changed depending on the status of sexual maturation. Of the functional fatty acids, ${\gamma}$-linolenic acid (GLA; 18:3n-6) is an important factor for maintaining human health. The purpose of our study was to investigate the level of GLA in mice with different stages of sexual maturation. To this end, the longissimus muscle (LM) of immature (3-week-old) and mature (7-week-old) female mice was analysed for the fatty acid composition by gas chromatography. Furthermore, both gene and protein level of ${\Delta}6$ desaturase (FADS2) which is involved in GLA metabolism by real time PCR and Western blotting, respectively. Mature females showed greater (P<0.05) serum $17{\beta}$-estradiol (E2) level and LM GLA contents than immature group. The mRNA and protein levels of FADS2, which converts precursor linoleic acid into GLA, were higher (P<0.05) in mature female mice than in immature mice. In conclusion, these results show that sexual maturation of female mice induces GLA and FADS2 contents in LM.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.23 no.1
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• pp.25-32
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• 2010

The present study aimed to examine the effects of ${\gamma}$-linolenic acid (GLA) supplementation to in vitro culture (IVC) medium on in vitro developmental competence, freezability and morphology of in vitro matured and fertilized bovine embryos. In vitro produced (IVP) bovine zygotes were cultured in IVC medium supplemented with 0 (negative control), 15, 31, 62, 125, 250, 500 or 1,000 ppm GLA, 250 ppm linoleic acid albumin (LAA) and without any supplement as a control. Day 6 blastocysts derived from culture control were cultured in IVC medium containing either 62, 250 GLA or 250 LAA for 24 h, and at Day 7 were subjected to freezing or morphological examination by electron microscope. GLA 15 showed a tendency to have a higher cleavage rate at Day 2 (70.3%) than other groups. The hatching rate at Day 9 in LAA (38.2%) was significantly higher than the control and all treatment groups (p<0.05), while the blastocyst rate in LAA (32.4%) did not differ from those of 15 (30.5%), 31 (27.1%), and 62 GLA (33.1%) or the control (35.1%). GLA in concentrations of 125, 250, 500, and 1,000 ppm had significantly detrimental effect on the blastocyst rate compared to 15, 31 and 62 ppm GLA, LAA, and control groups (p<0.05). In contrast, the highest post-thaw survival rate (100%) was observed in the control group (p<0.01). Large lipid droplets were observed in the cytoplasm of trophoblastic cells, even in the control, but were abundant in GLA groups. Taking the results of the study into consideration, the addition of GLA to the culture medium for IVP bovine embryos at the dose of 15 ppm increased the developmental competence of zygotes and enhanced the cleavage rate up to Day 2. However, blastulation rate and post-thaw survival were not increased when GLA was added to the culture media.

• Journal of the Korean Applied Science and Technology
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• v.25 no.4
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• pp.446-458
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• 2008

Essential fatty acids (EFA) are fatty acids that must be obtained from the diet because they can not be biosynthesized by human or animals. Gamma fatty acids contain gamma-linolenic acid (GLA, 18:3n-6) and dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DHGLA, 20:3n-6) as intermediate metabolites of linoleic acid (LA, 18:2n-6), which is an EFA found in vegetable oils. GLA is an important essential fatty acid that is required by human and animals to function normally. Recently, studies have indicated that GLA may be an essential component of the cell membrane, as well as an active component of dietary supplements and medicine. GLA must beadministered through the diet because it is converted into DHGLA in the body quickly and completely. DHGLA is a key material involved in the metabolism of LA. GLA is biosysthesized by the rate limiting step of ${\Deltac}^6$-desaturase, which is an enzyme that desaturates LA, there by allowing it to be converted into DHGLA via chain elongation. In addition, DHGLA exerts bioactive effects via action as a precursor of eicosanoid series 1. Breast milk contains an abundant amount of GLA; however, GLA is also available directly in evening primrose oil, black currant seed oil, borage oil and hemp seed oil. In addition, GLA enriched animal and plant can be produced using biotechnology, and highly pure GLA can be extracted using supercritical fluids, such as supercritical carbon dioxide, which will allow economically feasible production of GLA for use in medicines.

• Journal of Animal Science and Technology
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• v.53 no.3
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• pp.237-252
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• 2011

In this study, four different oils containing either CLA, GLA, GLA+Carnitine or corn oil (control) were supplemented to finishing pigs (average 70.8 kg initial BW) diet for 28 d of feeding period. To evaluate the values of the dietary fatty acids, especially in view of sensory and nutritional characteristics of pork; pig performances, carcass characteristics, serum cholesterol, neutrophil phagocytosis, TBARS, electronic nose flavor and fatty acids profile of pork were measured. There were no differences in daily gain and nutrients digestion among treatments, but daily feed intake of CLA enriched diet was lower (P<0.05) than that of other diets. There were no differences in backfat thickness, dressing percentage and carcass grade among pigs fed diets supplemented with different oils. Serum total cholesterol showed a tendency to be lowered in pigs fed GLA enriched diet. TBARS values during storage of pork were higher in belly from pigs fed control diet whereas the values of belly from pigs fed GLA+Carnitine diet were lower than others. However, difference in TBARS was not remarkable in adipose tissue and 4 weeks extended storage regardless of pork parts. Proportion of saturated fatty acids such as C16:0 and C18:0 were higher (P<0.05) in pork loin and thin skirt from pigs fed CLA enriched diet compared to those from other diets. There were no differences in fatty acids profiles of belly and adipose tissue. CLA accumulation in pork was increased by the dietary CLA supplementation and this could be also confirmed by a slight de novo synthesis of CLA in pork from pigs fed CLA free diets. GLA was selectively accumulated to pork adipose tissue and loin from pigs fed GLA enriched diets. There was no accumulation of GLA when GLA was not supplemented, indicating no de novo synthesis of GLA. Phagocytic activity was the highest (p<0.05) in neutrophil of pigs fed GLA+Carnitine supplemented diet, then, followed by pigs fed GLA supplemented diet. There was no difference in phagocytosis between control and CLA treatment although the phagocytosis was numerically lowest in pig fed CLA enriched diet. There were distinct differences in electronic nose flavor pattern among treatments regardless of the parts. This study showed that dietary supplementation of functional fatty acids like CLA or GLA was able to result in characteristic differences in feed intake, TBARS, fatty acids profile and flavor of pork, serum cholesterol regulation and neutrophil phagocytosis.

• The Korean Journal of Mycology
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• v.35 no.2
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• pp.96-100
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• 2007

In order to select ${\gamma}-Linolenic$ acid (GLA)-producing fungi, a total of forty-four strains of 4 genera such as Phytophthora, Pythium, Mucor and Rhizopus were obtained from Koran Agricultural Culture Collection (KACC) and then analysed by using GC-FID and GC-MS. GLA was detected on 39 fungal strains, and the highest rate of GLA was found as 24.8% of total fatty acids on Mucor hiemalis f. sp. hiemalis KACC 40264. Total GLA content of Zygomycota was comparatively high - Mucor (14.2%) and Rhizopus (14.3%), whereas that of Oomycetes was low - Phytophthora (3.3%) and Pythium (3.0%). Moreover, total fatty acids of the Zygomycota fungi such as Mucor (15.4 mg/100 ml) and Rhizopus (7.1 mg/100 ml) were higher compared with the Oomycetes such as Phytophthora (2.6 mg/100 ml) and Pythium (4.5 mg/100 ml). Thus, two genera such as Mucor and Rhizopus have higher potential as an useful microbial resource. The total fatty acid content varies even within the strains of the same genus e.g. Mucor. M. blumbeus KACC 40935 showed the highest values on productivity (18.2%) of GLA and total fatty acid contents (50.8 mg/100 ml liquid medium).

• The Korean Journal of Pesticide Science
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• v.10 no.2
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• pp.76-83
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• 2006

In order to investigate the impacts of non-selective herbicide, glufosinate-ammonium (ammonium 4-[hydroxy(methyl)phosphinoyl] -DL-homoalaninate, GLA) to the non-target organisms, earthworm was exposed to GLA in the field soil for a month, and microbial populations in the soil were investigated after application of GLA. Simultaneously, the residues of GLA and its metabolite, 3-MPP were analyzed in the same soil. Meanwhile, to elucidate the influence of GLA to the growth of non-target crops incase of inter-furrow application, the amounts of carotenoid, chlorophyll, amino acid, proteins and sugars in the leaves of potato and chinese cabbage grown in the same field were investigated. In result, the dead earthworm was not observed during the test period, and the increasing rates of bodyweight were $9.410{\sim}11.603%$ in GLA-treated plots and 5.645% in GLA-untreated plots. The populations of fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes in the GLA-treated soils were $6.2{\times}10^4$, $1.5{\times}10^6$ and $5.7{\times}10^4$, respectively. They maintained relatively similar levels to the control which were $3.7{\times}10^4$, $3.7{\times}10^5$ and $3.7{\times}10^4$, respectively. In residue analysis, the limit of detection of GLA was 0.02 mg $kg^{-1}$, that of 3-MPP was the same level, and the half-life of GLA was 15 days in sandy clay loam soil. This result indicates that GLA was degraded very quickly in field soil. On the other hand, the amounts of physiological, biochemical components such as carotenoid, amino acid, chlorophyll, protein and sugar were ranged from 90.0 to 104.3% in potato and from 99.0 to 112.7% in chinese cabbage. Comparing with hand-weeded plots, it is indicated that GLA had not affected to the growth of non-target crops when applied at inter-furrow in crops-growing field.

• Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering:BBE
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• v.9 no.6
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• pp.506-513
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• 2004

Spirulina produces $\gamma$-linolenic acid (GLA), an important pharmaceutical substance, in a relatively low level compared with fungi and plants, prompting more research to improve its GLA yield. In this study, metabolic flux analysis was applied to determine the cellular metabolic flux distributions in the GLA synthetic pathways of two Spiru/ina strains, wild type BP and a high­GLA producing mutant Z19/2. Simplified pathways involving the GLA synthesis of S. platensis formulated comprise of photosynthesis, gluconeogenesis, the pentose phosphate pathway, the anaplerotic pathway, the tricarboxylic cycle, the GLA synthesis pathway, and the biomass syn­thesis pathway. A stoichiometric model reflecting these pathways contains 17 intermediates and 22 reactions. Three fluxes - the bicarbonate (C-source) uptake rate, the specific growth rate, and the GLA synthesis rate - were measured and the remaining fluxes were calculated using lin­ear optimization. The calculation showed that the flux through the reaction converting acetyl­CoA into malonyl-CoA in the mutant strain was nearly three times higher than that in the wild­type strain. This finding implies that this reaction is rate controlling. This suggestion was sup­ported by experiments, in which the stimulating factors for this reaction $(NADPH\;and\;MgCl_{2})$ were added into the culture medium, resulting in an increased GLA-synthesis rate in the wild type strain.

• Korean Journal of Agricultural Science
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• v.43 no.2
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• pp.232-239
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• 2016

Recently, research has been focusing on high quality and safer animal production by utilizing natural functional materials. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of administration of natural Evening Primrose Oil (EPO) on gamma linolenic acid (GLA) levels in milk from Holstein dairy cows. Quality and quantity of milk as well as blood and fatty acids from Holstein cow fed diets supplemented with 2.7-4% calcium-salted EPO coated with palm stearin oil were analyzed. There was no significant difference in yield and composition of milk between control and EPO treatment. However, EPO treatment lowered blood aspartate aminotransferase (AST), somatic cell count (SCC), and cholesterol levels (p < 0.05) compared to untreated control. Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) level was decreased (p < 0.05) in GLA 1 and GLA 2 group when compared with control group. Non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) concentration was lower (p < 0.05) in GLA 1 and GLA 2 groups than in control group. The level of GLA in milk was increased in EPO group when compared to control. Therefore, results from the present study demonstrate that supplementary EPO has beneficial effects on cow health, showing a decrease in somatic cell count and levels of blood cholesterol, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and AST. Furthermore, supplementation of EPO improves milk quality with increased amounts of GLA.

• KOREAN JOURNAL OF CROP SCIENCE
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• v.35 no.2
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• pp.176-178
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• 1990

The essential fatty acid composition of evening primrose seed at 3 natural habitats in Korea was investigated by means of capillary column gas-chromatography. The content of essential fatty acid components was palmitic acid 6.19-6.73%. stearic acid 1.84-1. 99%, oleic acid 6.73-9.10%. linoleic acid 74.41-75.53%. Particularly. gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) which is a precursor of prostaglandin was 9.14% in Cheong-ju. 9.32% in Che-cheon and 8.31% in An-dong. Based on the GLA content evening primroses in Korean natural habitats seem to be very promising and useful for GLA production.