• Archives of Pharmacal Research
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• v.27 no.11
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• pp.1136-1140
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• 2004

Red ginseng and fermented red ginseng were prepared, and their composition of ginsenosides and antiischemic effect were investigated. When ginseng was steamed at 98-$100{\circ}C$ for 4h and dried for 5h at $60{\circ}C$, and extracted with alcohol, its main components were ginsenoside $Rg_3$ > ginsenoside $Rg_1$> ginsenoside $Rg_2$. When the ginseng was suspended in water and fermented for 5 days by previously cultured Bifidobacterium H-1 and freeze-dried (fermented red ginseng), its main components were compound K > ginsenoside $Rg_3{\geq}$ ginsenoside $Rg_2$. Orally administered red ginseng extract did not protect ischemia-reperfusion brain injury. However, fermented red ginseng significantly protected ischemica-reperfusion brain injury. These results suggest that ginsenoside Rh2 and compound K, which was found to be at a higher content in fermented red ginseng than red ginseng, may improve ischemic brain injury.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.46 no.2
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• pp.296-303
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• 2022

Background: Skin microbiota is important for maintenance of skin homeostasis; however, its disturbance may cause an increase in pathogenic microorganisms. Therefore, we aimed to develop a red ginseng formulation that can selectively promote beneficial bacteria. Methods: The effects of red ginseng formulation on microorganism growth were analyzed by comparing the growth rates of Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, and Cutibacterium acnes. Various preservatives mixed with red ginseng formulation were evaluated to determine the ideal composition for selective growth promotion of S. epidermidis. Red ginseng formulation with selected preservative was loaded into a biocompatible polymer mixture and applied to the faces of 20 female subjects in the clinical trial to observe changes in the skin microbiome. Results: Red ginseng formulation promoted the growth of S. aureus and S. epidermidis compared to fructooligosaccharide. When 1,2-hexanediol was applied with red ginseng formulation, only S. epidermidis showed selective growth. The analysis of the release rates of ginsenoside-Rg1 and -Re revealed that the exact content of Pluronic F-127 was around 11%. The application of hydrogel resulted in a decrease in C. acnes in all subjects. In subjects with low levels of S. epidermidis, the distribution of S. epidermidis was significantly increased with the application of hydrogel formulation and total microbial species of subjects decreased by 50% during the clinical trial. Conclusion: We confirmed that red ginseng formulation with 1,2-hexanediol can help maintain skin homeostasis through improvement of skin microbiome.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.21 no.2
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• pp.98-103
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• 1997

On the precontracted rabbit cavernosal muscle strips with phenylephrine ($5\ast10^{-6}$M), Increasing concentrations of acetylcholine (10-7, 10-6, 10-5, 10-4M) showed relaxation effect dose-dependently in control group ($10^{-7}$M : 15.32%, $10^{-6}$M : 35.44%, 10-5M : 59.45%, 10-4M : 76.54%). After 3 months administering Korean red ginseng, the relaxation action of acetylcholine was significantly increased ($10^{-7}$M : 34.18%, $10^{-6}$M : 56.35%, $10^{-5}$M : 75.33%, $10^{-4}$M : 89.86%). Relaxation effect of Korean red ginseng was significantly increased after 3 months administering Korean red ginseng. Intracavernous pressure response to electrostimulation wan 107.52 cm$H_2O$ in control group and significantly increased to 138.34 cm $H_2O$ after 3 month administering Korean red ginseng. With these results, we can confirm that long-term administration of Korean red ginseng enhances the erectly capacity and that its action is mediated by endothelium derived relaxing factor and peripheral neurophysiologic enhancement.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.5 no.2
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• pp.108-113
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• 1981

Major quality indices for deterioration of red ginseng including oxidation of lipids and change of brown color intensity were periodically investicated during storage of Red Ginseng under various water activity conditions at 3$0^{\circ}C$. The results obtained were summarized as follows. 1. The monolayer moisture contents were 3.25% and 6.3% for red ginseng and red ginseng powder, respectively, and the corresponding water activities were 0.14 and 0.16, respectively. 2. Oxidation of lipids as measured by TBA value increased with an increase in relative humidity and storage period 3. Under storage conditions above 42% R H., brown color intensity also increased in similar fashion to that of oxidation of lipids as relative humidity and storage Period increased 4. It was concluded from above results that water activity of Red Ginseng should be kept less than 0.57 so that red ginseng could Preserve stable qualify.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.33 no.4
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• pp.305-310
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• 2009

Phenanthrene, one of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, has been known to be toxic to the environment. In this investigation, the protective effect of red ginseng on phenanthrene-induced oxidative DNA damage was evaluated using Comet assay in A549 cells. Red ginseng's cytoprotective effect on phenanthrene-induced hemolysis was also investigated. This study's findings show that oxidative DNA damage and hemolysis were significantly prevented by red ginseng treatment. Notably, it was found that pulverizing red ginseng into ultra-fine particles even enhanced its protective effects against DNA damage and hemolysis. The results suggest that particle size reduction seems to effectively enhance red ginseng's pharmacological efficacies.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.19 no.1
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• pp.22-26
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• 1995

The present study was undertaken to elucidate the characteristics of red ginseng total saponin in behavioral changes on ambulation, forced swim test and convulsion in mice. The ambulation and the duration of immobility on forced swim test were not affected by red ginseng total saponin. On the other hand, the duration of immobility inducted by DMI, PGL but not CIP was significantly decreased, and the onset of convulsion induced by pentylenetetrazole was significantly shortened by preadministration of red ginseng total saponin. These results suggest that red ginseng total saponin component may play an important role in modulating synergism with drugs acting on depression and convulsion, and that the characteristics of synergetic effect induced by red ginseng total saponin potentate the central norepinephrine neuron activity.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.25 no.2
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• pp.68-73
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• 2001

Studies were performed to determine the effect of red ginseng and white ginseng on jejunal crypt survival, endogenous spleen colony formation, and apoptosis of jejunal crypt cells in irradiated mice. The radioprotective effect of ginseng was compared with the effect of diethyldithocarbamate(D). Jejunal crypts were protected from irradiation by pretreatment of red ginseng (50 mg/kg B.W., I.P. at 36 and 12 hours before irradiation) and white ginseng (50 mg/kg B.W., I.P. at 36 and 12 hours before irradiation). Red ginseng administration before irradiation and both pretreatment and posttreatment (50 mg/kg B.W., I.P. at 30 minutes after irradiation) of white ginseng resulted in an increase of the formation of endogenous spleen colony. the frequency of radiation-induced apoptosis in intestinal crypt cells was also reduced by both pretreatment and posttreatment of red ginseng, and pretreatment of white ginseng. The radioprotective effect of DDC (1000 mg/kg B.W., I.P. at 30 minutes before irradiation) on jejunal crypt survival and apoptosis was similar to those of ginseng treatment. Treatment with DDC showed no significant modifying effects on formation of endogenous spleen colony. These results indicated that ginseng might be a useful radioprotector. Further studies are needed to characterize effective radioprotective components and mechanism of ginseng.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.13 no.2
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• pp.169-173
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• 1989

Seven year old ginseng was investigated for yield , the relationship between yield and percent missing plant and red ginseng quality. Yield was 2.06 kg/kan (3.3 m2) and percent missing plant was 27.1%. The highest yield plot showed 3.58 kg/kan and potential yield appeared to be 4.5 kg/kan. Yields of 1st, End and 3rd line showed significant negative linear correlation with percent missing plant. Potential yield without missing plant was in decreasing order of 1>2)3>5) 4 and negatively correlated with unit yield decrease per percent missing plant. Potential yield of 1st line was 6.56 kg/tan. Soft X-ray absorbtion characteristics was not different from that of 6 year old ginseng. Red ginseng grade and percent occurence of red ginseng quality factors were not different from those of 6 years old ginseng. The weight of red ginseng per root was much greater than that of 6 years ginseng. In view of yield and quality of fresh and red ginseng the production of red ginseng from 7 years old ginseng appears to be economically feasible.

• The Journal of Korean Medicine
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• v.33 no.3
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• pp.200-230
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• 2012

Objectives: Ginseng, Panax ginseng C. A., white ginseng, has been used for thousands of years in Traditional Korean Medicine. Red ginseng can be made by a steaming process of white ginseng changing a variety of ginsenosides and ingredients such as dencichine. This article reviews red ginseng for mechanisms for pharmacodynamics and toxicity based on the content of ginseng's active ingredients, ginsenoside changed by steaming. Methods: The following electronic databases were searched: PubMed, Science Direct and Chinese Scientific Journals full text database (CQVIP), and KSI (Korean Studies Information) from their respective inceptions to June 2012. Results: Compared with unsteamed ginseng, the content of ginsenosides Rg2, Rg3, Rg5, Rh1, Rh2 and Rk1 called red ginseng-specific ginsenosides increased after the steaming process. Different ginsenosides have shown a wide variety of effects such as lowering or raising blood sugar and blood pressure or stimulating or sedating the nervous system. Especially, the levels of Rg2, Rg3, Rg5, Rh1, Rh2 and Rk1 were increased by the steaming process, showing a variety of pharmacodynamics in biological systems. Also, various processing methods such as puffing and fermentation have been developed in processing crude ginseng or red ginseng, affecting the content of ginseng's ingredients. The safety issue could be the most critical, specifically, on changed ginseng's ingredients such as dencichine. The level of dencichine was significantly reduced in red ginseng by the steaming process. In addition, the possible toxicity for red ginseng was affected by cytochrome P450, a herbal-drug interaction. Conclusions: The variety of pharmacological and toxicological properties should be changed by steaming process of Panax ginseng C. A., white ginseng. Even if it is not sure whether the steaming process of white ginseng would be better pharmacologically, it is sure that steaming reduces the level of dencichine causing a lower toxicity to the nervous system.

• Food Science and Biotechnology
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• v.16 no.5
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• pp.848-853
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• 2007

The effects of high-hydrostatic pressure (HHP) on the ginsenoside concentration in Korean red ginseng were investigated. HHP-pretreated Korean red ginseng samples were compared to samples produced by a conventional method. Six-year-old Korean fresh ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) samples were vacuum-packaged in polyethylene film and treated at room temperature for 1 min with HHP (200-600 MPa) and steamed at $98^{\circ}C$ for 3 hr. Major ginsenosides of red ginseng were analyzed by HPLC. HHP-pretreated red ginseng showed a 45% higher level of total major ginsenosides than conventionally prepared red ginseng. The levels of 4 protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides increased 34-43% and the levels of 5 protopanaxatriol-type ginsenosides increased 45-66%. Scanning electron microscopy and electrical conductivity spectrum analysis showed that HHP pretreatment damaged ginseng plant cells and increased extraction efficiencies of ginsenosides from red ginseng products.