Self-Directed Learning in the Workplace and Labor Education in South Korea: Implications for Legislation on Trade Union Education

일터 내 자기주도학습과 한국의 노동교육: 노동조합교육 법제화에 대한 함의

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to explore self-directed learning (SDL) in the workplace and to examine labor education in South Korea in order to draw the critical implications for legislation on trade union education (TUE). First, labor education in South Korea and its legal system were reviewed in a detailed way. Second, SDL in the workplace was closely analyzed from the perspectives of not only human resource development (HRD) but also adult education and lifelong learning. Third, based on the results of the comprehensive review, the implications of SDL in the workplace for worker-initiated labor education were discussed in terms of legislation on TUE in South Korea. Since legislation at the national level can promote workers' participation in TUE in the context of SDL for industrial democracy, TUE in South Korea should be provided with appropriate legislative, financial, and administrative support.

본 연구의 목적은 일터 내에서의 자기주도학습을 탐색하고 한국의 노동교육을 고찰하여, 노동조합교육 법제화에 관한 주요한 함의를 도출하는 것이다. 이를 위해 첫 번째로 한국의 노동교육과 이와 관련된 법제를 자세히 살펴보았다. 두 번째로, 일터 내에서의 자기주도학습이 면밀하게 분석되었는데 이는 인적자원개발뿐만 아니라 성인교육 및 평생학습의 관점에서도 함께 이루어졌다. 세 번째로 이와 같은 종합적인 고찰의 결과를 바탕으로 일터 내에서의 자기주도학습이 근로자 주도의 노동교육에 가지는 시사점을 한국의 노동조합교육 법제화라는 측면에서 논의하였다. 이러한 국가 차원에서의 법제화가 이루어질 경우 산업민주화를 위한 자기주도학습의 맥락에서 근로자의 노동조합교육 참여를 촉진할 수 있기 때문에, 한국의 노동조합교육은 적절한 법적, 재정적, 행정적 지원을 제공받는 것이 필요할 것이다.

I. Introduction

In South Korea, the legal system for labor education has been paid continuing attentions by not only scholars and practitioner but also policymakers and lawmakers. For instance, two Amendment Drafts of Framework Act on Education, which were presented at the Korean National Assembly in September 2016 and July 2017, institutionalize labor education in terms of labor-related human rights. In a similar vein,[1], which was presented at the Korean National Assembly in July 2007, permits trade unions to establish and manage lifelong education facilities. Trade union education (TUE), a type of labor education, is an ongoing critical issue in the legal system affecting not only human resource development (HRD), but also adult education and lifelong learning in South Korea[1]. The labor workers, the employers, and the government confront one another as they lobby for their individual interests[2].

Self-directed learning (SDL) is one of the critical characteristics of TUE, a type of worker-initiated labor education, because TUE is operated by workers or learners, not employers or the government[2]. As TUE is a type of labor education involving not only HRD but also adult education and lifelong learning, itis necessary to analyze SDL from these different perspectives. TUE is important in the context of SDL, as it could be an ideal method to effectively enhance workers’ rights and responsibilities[3]. Moreover, TUE can improve workers’ participation in their own development in the workplace[4]. However, TUE has not yet been legislated in South Korea[5][6]. This is a serious problem as legislation on TUE is closely related to the status of not only HRD but also adult education and lifelong learning in the legal system[7]. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore SDL in the workplace and to examine labor education in South Korea in order to draw the critical implications for legislation on TUE.

This study is organized into the following sections: First, labor education in South Korea and its legal system were reviewed in a detailed way. Second, SDL in the workplace was closely analyzed from the perspectives of not only HRD but also adult education and lifelong learning. Third, based on the results of the comprehensive review, the implications of SDL in the workplace for worker-initiated labor education were discussed in terms of legislation on TUE in South Korea. In the conclusion section, this study highlighted the role of the legal system in promoting workplace SDL in the context of TUE in South Korea.

Ⅱ. Labor Education in South Korea and Its Legal System

1. The Concept of Labor Education

Choosing a single term that can cover all areas of education related to labor (or work) will facilitate the comprehensive analysis of the legal system of labor education. However, there are many terms that can describe labor-related education, such as TUE, industrial relations education, vocational education, career education, technical education, and other kinds of adult education[8]. Although it is hard to find a suitable term that can include all areas of labor-related education, it seems that the term labor education (it has been sometimes called workers’ education or labor studies in the U.S.)can be used as a comprehensive term for the purpose of this study. As the next step, it is necessary to discuss definitions of labor education in a detailed way.

In general, scholars and organizations in many countries define labor education in different ways because the philosophy, history, and practice of labor education are different from one another[9]. As long as the background of labor market changes from the industrialized to the knowledge-based society, the concept of labor education can change gradually in the social context[9]. For example, terms such as labor education, workers’ education, and labor studies have been used in different historical periods in the U.S.[8][10]. According to [11], development of labor education in the U.S. can be summed up as three distinct periods with defining patterns: workers' education (1900-1935), labor education (1935-1965), and labor studies (1965-present).

In the U.S., labor education was traditionally used to refer to TUE[12]. However, in South Korea, it can mean not only TUE but also every type of labor-related education[8]. First, labor education can be defined narrowly as a systematic process of education to help workers accomplish the goals of the trade union and meet their educational needs as members of the trade union[9]. Second, it can be also defined broadly as labor-related lifelong education which develops labor-related values and vocational (or occupational) skills for employees, employers, government, and general citizens and is implemented in order to solve labor problems in a practical way in the industrial society[13]. This official definition, which was made by the Korea Labor Education Institute (KLEI) under the Ministry of Labor, contains almost every core element in the concept of labor education and has been commonly accepted for practice and research in South Korea.

Similarly, scholars in South Korea define labor education either as a narrow or as abroad concept[8]. In these definitions, the common main contents of labor education are labor problems that include the value of labor, industrial relations, labor movements, and vocational skills[6]. Moreover, in South Korea, there are two main viewpoints of the concept of labor education: a viewpoint from education and that of labor[9]. When these viewpoints are synthesized, labor education can be understood broadly as intentional and organized education which is implemented in order to change the beliefs, values, attitudes, and activities related to labor[12].

Based on the broad definition above, labor education in South Korea can include every kind of labor-related education, such as TUE, industrial relations education, vocational education[12]. Currently, this concept is generally accepted by South Korean scholars[12]. Moreover, based on [14]’s conclusion that his analysis raised deeper questions about the mechanization by labor-displacing technology on the employment growth, recent change in the labor market suggests the need for synthesizing the concepts of labor-related education[12]. As a consequence, in order to discuss the entire legal system of labor-related education in South Korea, this study recommends adopting the broad concept of labor education as labor-related lifelong education or labor-related adult education[12].

2. The Philosophy of Labor Education and Its Link to Self-Directed Learning

In labor education, the term labor means work itself, and it refers to every problem related to labor[9]. The history of humankind is the history of labor[12]. Moreover, labor is the basic prerequisite for the survival and continuation of human life[12]. David Carr's criteria for distinguishing between professional and non-professional labor are inappropriate[15]; every kind of labor has played a role in promoting human flourishing and well-being of customers.

In this context of labor, the meaning of the term labor should change from something objective to something subjective[16]. The objective sense refers to productivity and industrial relations. The subjective sense refers to discovering the value of life and realizing an individual self during one’s entire life[16]. For example, as [17] concluded, the most creative labor can be conducted when the employees, with appropriate creativity-relevant personal characteristics, work on complex and challenging jobs under supportive, not controlling supervision. It is important to understand the meaning of labor from the perspective of workers in order to improve the workers’ ability[16]. Furthermore, learners’ self-directedness involves the ability to require “skills in effectively engaging the assistance of others within a socially constructed community of practice”[18]. In this context, it seems that the meaning of labor from the perspective of workers is also related to self-directedness in workplace learning.

As described previously, labor is the essential element in the existence of human beings[9]. In other words, labor is a criterion of the distinction between humans and animals. If there were no labor, the meaning of life would decrease greatly, and the motivation to produce would be low. Marx’s discussion about the meaning of labor as the foundation of human existence can have significant implications for the understanding of educational meaning and value of labor[9].

Before schools as formal educational institutions appeared, the fundamental activity of education which occurred in human society was social learning related to skills needed to make the product[8]. In other words, labor education was the origin of education. Based on Watkinson’s(1990) description on interesting concepts of the useful knowledge from the eighteenth to nineteenth century in the U.S., historically, the main purpose of every education, including school education, has been to learn the value of labor, practical knowledge, and skills in order to survive [8]. In this context, the combination of education and labor is necessary and important.

3. The History of Labor Education Focusing on the Legal System

In this study, the history of labor education in South Korea will be reviewed from the perspective of the legal system. Moreover, the types of labor education will be classified by who initiates labor education because the government, employers, and workers have conducted labor education in South Korea in different ways[13].

The legal system for labor education has been established in diverse areas of labor education for a long period of time from the 1960s to the present[10]. Because lifelong education (or social education) is a term that describes the area of adult education in the South Korean legal system, it is necessary to analyze the legal system for lifelong education first. The concept of lifelong education was initially legislated in the Korean Constitution in 1980[19]. This legislation was followed by Article 31 of the current Constitution of the Republic of Korea (1987).

Based on legislation on lifelong education in the Constitution of the Republic of Korea(1980), the Social Education Act (1982) was established in order to actualize lifelong education in 1982[19]. Under Article 2 of this act, the concept of social education could include that of labor education from the perspective of adult education in the workplace[19]. In 1997 the legal system of education was broadly modified, and the Framework Act on Education (1997) became the primary law in the legal system for all education[20]. Under Article 3 of this act, the concept of the right to learn was introduced to the South Korean legal system for the first time[20]. In 1999 the Social Education Act(1982) was totally revised and renamed[19]. In the new act entitled the Lifelong Education Act(1999), the legal status of lifelong education, including labor education, became legally equal to the traditional school education in formal institutions as stated under Article 2 of this act.

3.1 The area of government-initiated labor education

In South Korea, the modern history of labor education started in the 1960s. During that time, most labor education was initiated by the government[6]. In 1967, labor education was supported institutionally by the Act on Vocational Training. By this act, the Central Vocational Training Center was founded in 1968[7]. Vocational education and training as national HRD was established by the as a national institution, and the government played the main role in leading the national economic growth[10].

In the 1970s, government-initiated labor education was conducted in more diverse ways than before, focusing on vocational education and training[6]. In 1973 the Industrial Education Promotion Act was revised. In 1974 the Act on Special Measures for the Vocational Education and the National Technical Qualifications Act were put into operation in order to produce a skilled workforce. In addition, in 1976 the Framework Act on Vocational Training was established. Moreover, the Korea National Open University was founded in 1972 and the Polytechnic College was founded in 1977 in order to broaden opportunities for workers to pursue higher education[10].

From 1980 to 1987, government-initiated labor education was changed with the introduction of industrial relations education[6]. As the government recognized the importance of this subject, the government emphasized industrial relations education through the Labor and Management Council Act in 1981. In the area of vocational education and training, the related legal and administrative systems were revised as the Ministry of Labor founded the HRD Service of Korea in 1981[10].

After 1987, government-initiated labor education was strengthened as well[10]. The national-level HRD was implemented by the national policies such as the National Human Resources Development Plan[6]. Moreover, in 1990 the government-sponsored industrial relations education was launched through the Act on the Korea Labor Education Institute, in order to be more neutral than business-sponsored or trade union-sponsored industrial relations education[13]. This reflected the individual interests of the labor workers, employers, and government. In addition, government-initiated labor education has been conducted from 1988 to the present by public organizations, such as the Korea Labor Education Institute (KLEI), focusing on industrial relations education[10].

3.2 The area of employer-initiated labor education

In the 1960s when industrialization began,employer-initiated labor education started with the support of the government[10]. Similarly, in the 1970s employer-initiated labor education was promoted and supported by government initiated in various ways. Employers conducted vocational education and training with the support of laws, policies, and institutions[6].

From 1980 to 1987, employer-initiated labor education became very vigorous[10]. Labor education programs initiated by companies were established, when the leading companies, such as Samsung, LG, and Hyundai, founded their own HRD centers in the early 1980s[7]. The corporate universities founded by these companies were established quickly as institutions[21]. Moreover, labor education programs which were initiated by united organizations of employers, such as the Korea Employers Federation (KEF), were conducted[13].

After 1987, employer-initiated labor education was broadened to include corporate education, in order to improve the competency of the workforce and stabilize industrial relations[22]. Employer-initiated labor education was improved especially from the aspect of both quality and quantity by the institutional support of the government[7]. Moreover, industrial relations education was conducted in the context of the corporate culture movement, which was initiated by the employers so that management could effectively confront TUE[10].

3.3 The area of worker-initiated labor education

In the 1960s, worker-initiated labor education was rare, because the government had significant power over workers and trade unions[7]. For example, the Federation of Korean Trade Unions, which was the biggest united trade union, was under the control of the government during this period[6]. However, labor education initiated by civil organizations, such as The Young Men’s Christian Association(YMCA), was preparing to mount a labor education movement[10].

In the 1970s, worker-initiated labor education was started[10]. The labor movement, initiated by the suicide of a worker, Tae-Il Jeon, encouraged the workers to increase their awareness of the social problems such as discrimination in the workplace[6]. As a result, the workers were willing to join in worker-initiated labor education. On the other hand, it was not the workers or trade unions, but the universities or religious/civil organizations that mainly initiated labor education and provided the programs, because the government had absolute control of labor policies, including labor education. In addition,non-organized labor education, such as the evening school for labor studies, was started and became popular quickly[7]. The curriculum of this kind of labor education was mainly about the ideology of the labor movement and the social revolution so that trade unions could strengthen and widen their organizations with an ultimate goal to change the society[7].

After 1987, worker-initiated labor education was changed dramatically through the Democratic Revolution by citizens and the 1987 General Strike by labor workers[6]. Due to this turning point, TUE became popular on a large scale, and the social status of worker-initiated labor education became greatly improved. Moreover, TUE, which was provided not only by trade unions in companies but also by the united trade unions, was implemented widely. Non-organized labor education such as evening schools for the labor studies declined. However, the support for the worker-initiated labor education by other civil organizations continued[7].

In addition to TUE, worker-initiated labor education lead by individual workers began during the 1990s[6]. For example, in 1990 the Act of Obtaining Degree by the Self-Study was enacted and the Polytechnic College Act was established in 1997. On the contrary, this type of worker-initiated labor education has not yet been institutionalized by the as well as TUE[7].

Table 1. The Historical Development of Labor Education in South Korea

Source: [2], p.223

4. The Features of the Legal System for Labor Education

As described previously, legislation on labor education in South Korea is concentrated on labor education initiated by the government and employers[7]. In other words, labor education has been legislated from the viewpoint of the government and for the sake of employers[6]. In short, in South Korea, there are two main features in the legal system for labor education: government-initiated and employer-initiated labor education.

First, due to this strong systematic support by the legal system, the South Korean government still has strong control over the practice of labor education[6]. As [23] emphasized the role of the government in a lifelong learning society,it has been one of the most important functions of the government to control, plan, and assist labor education[10]. Based on this legislation, the government has been establishing and implementing several national strategic policies for labor education, such as the Framework Plan for Economic Growth, the National Human Resources Development Plan, the Framework Plan for Development of Lifelong Occupational Abilities, and the Comprehensive Plan for Promotion of Lifelong Learning[7]. To assist the effective implementation of these policies, many government agencies, such as the HRD Service of Korea, the Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training(KRIVET), the Korea Employment Information Service (KEIS), the New Paradigm Center in the Korea Labor Institute (KLI), and the Korea Labor Education Institute (KLEI), were founded by legislation and have played important roles in the diverse areas of labor education[10].

Second, due to this governmental support through the legal system, employers have been given a superior position to workers in the areas of labor education[6]. Employers have financially benefited from employer-initiated labor education. The benefits include tax reductions and direct support from employment insurance funds[7]. Moreover, employers have established their own HRD Centers, such as the Samsung HRD Center, the LG Human Center, and the Hyundai Human Development Center[24]. In addition, employers launched corporate universities including Samsung Institute of Technology (SSIT) in 1997[21]. These investments in labor education became possible through the support of the national legal system[10].

5. The Defects of the Legal System for Labor Education

As described previously, it seems that government-initiated and employer-initiated labor education has been supported systemically by the legal system[7]. However, worker initiated labor education has not yet been sufficiently institutionalized by legislation[6]. As a result, workers have not been autonomous in the areas of labor education[7]. This means that the current legal system for labor education finds it difficult to meet the needs of workers in a changing labor market shaped by globalization and individualization[6]. Moreover, this serious and difficult defects can be analyzed in the following three aspects of labor education: (a) money, (b) time, and (c) process[25].

First, in regard to the aspect of money, providing the financial support for worker-initiated labor education is very difficult[6]. The current legal system of the Employment Insurance Act (2005) mainly assists employer initiated labor education under the national strategic policies[7]. In other words, direct financial support is concentrated on employer initiated labor education, not worker-initiated labor education. Second, in regard to the aspect of time, workers’ opportunities to learn throughout their entire life are limited[25]. This means that the chance for labor education is not equal among the workers because the employers tend to choose specific classes of workers as the main target of labor education. Therefore, the education gap among workers may increase because time for labor education is often limited to only a selected number of workers[25]. Third, in terms of the aspect of process, it is not easy for democracy in the area of labor education to be realized in the workplace. For instance, the government decides the national strategic policies related to labor education, and employers establish their labor education plan. Therefore, it is hard for workers to independently choose the labor education content and to participate in planning and implementing labor education.

Ⅲ. Self-Directed Learning and Its Promotion in the Workplace

1. The Concept of Self-Directed Learning

SDL can be explained by three aspects: definition, goals, and characteristics. SDL is defined as “a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes”[26]. The goals of SDL are to improve adult learners’ self-directedness in their learning, to promote transformative learning, and to stimulate emancipatory learning[27].

SDL also can be explained by its characteristics. The first characteristic of SDL is autonomy and independence, which enables learners to learn by themselves[28]. The second set of characteristics is a learner’s responsibility for self-management of planning, carrying out, and evaluating their own learning experiences[29]. The third characteristic is self-reflection[30]. SDL can be nurtured and developed in the workplace by creating learning environments and networks among worker-learners. Workplace SDL can be viewed from the different perspectives of not only HRD but also adult education and lifelong learning.

2. Self-Directed Learning from the Perspective of Human Resource Development

According to [31], levels of analysis can play a critical role in modeling HRD theory and practice. These different concepts of HRD from the individual, organizational, and community societal levels of analysis are suggested in order to analyze distinctiveness, usefulness, and tensions within and between them, such as assumptions, characteristics, and delivery of HRD. According to their comprehensive framework, HRD should be analyzed from a systemic perspective because not only organizational but also individual and community-societal levels of approach analyses are necessary to better understand HRD.

SDL can be applied to this three-level analytic approach to HRD. First of all, SDL can be related to the individual level of analysis in that SDL is about whether or not learners are independent and participate voluntarily in their learning processes. Secondly, SDL can be connected to the organizational level of analysis of HRD because SDL can be promoted and enhanced within the organizational context. Lastly, SDL can be linked to the community societal level of analysis of HRD because SDL can be supported and influenced by a society or nation.

3. Self-Directed Learning from the Perspective of Adult Education and Lifelong Learning

SDL is a key issue in adult education[32], and SDL plays a critical role in adult education in that one of the goals of SDL is to promote adult learners’ capabilities in their learning processes as self-directed learners[27][33]. SDL and adult education are closely associated with each other because SDL is one of the most critical elements in fostering and enriching adult learning[32][33]. [34] pointed out SDL along with critical thinking as the two major theoretical frameworks in adult education. According to [33], self-direction is the most critical point in distinguishing andragogy, a persistent effort to support adult learners to improve their capabilities as self-directed learners[35]. from pedagogy. Andragogyassumes that adult learners can direct their own learning based on their own experientially based learning resources, and their learning is driven by intrinsic motivation[33][36].

Moreover, informal learning in the workplace, which is one of the main issues in adult education[37], is important as it promotes reflection-in-action, beyond formal training, which focuses on behaviors and skills[38]. Through informal learning, learning continuously takes place, ongoing learner reflection is stimulated, and individual and group learning is encouraged[39]. Marsicksuggested SDL as a form of informal learning that should be encouraged in the workplace. Also, [40] identified the most ideal form of adult learners’ SDL as “one in which critical reflection on the contingent aspects of reality, the exploration of alternative perspectives and meaning systems, and the alteration of personal and social circumstances are all present” (pp. 58-59). Therefore, the critical reflective aspect of SDL can enhance informal learning in the workplace, and SDL can be applied effectively to an education-friendly workplace.

SDL and lifelong learning are inseparably and reciprocally related in that on the one hand, SDL is the aim of lifelong learning; and on the other hand, SDL is a crucial means of lifelong learning. [28] regarded adults as innate self-directed learners. [26] deemed that SDL is a fundamental capability that enables a human being to learn by him or herself and that a learner matures into a more self-directed learner as he or she ages. Learner’s self-directedness means a critical awareness of one's own learning process[30], and lifelong learning occurs throughout one’s lifespan[41]. Therefore, a human is born as a self-directed learner and becomes more self-directed through lifelong learning activities during their whole lives. In this view, the ultimate aim of lifelong learning can be regarded as self-direction.

Meanwhile, SDL is a crucial means of lifelong learning. [42] suggested that lifelong learning can be practiced through formal, nonformal, informal, and SDL and emphasized SDL as an important means for achieving lifelong learning. Self-direction is one of the essential ways to realize lifelong learning. SDL helps adult learners better seek and pursue their own learning throughout their lifespan. At the same time, through lifelong learning, adult learners also become self-directed in their learning by acquiring appropriate skills and competencies for SDL. Therefore, SDL can be considered not only as a means of lifelong learning but also as a goal of lifelong learning. For this reason, SDL and lifelong learning are intertwined, and the relationship between them is reciprocal[22].

4. The Need to Promote Self-Directed Learning in the Workplace

SDL in the workplace should be fostered because workplace SDL helps an organization meet the needs of rapidly changing climates and influences the economic benefit of the organization[43]. The concept of education in the workplace has been revised as the knowledge and technology required for business and industry have been rapidly changing[44]. To keep up with the changes, just-in-time workplace learning is necessary, and SDL could be an effective approach to it [45]. Employee workplace learning, which frequently takes place in an informal and self-directed way[46], affects the organizational performance with the changes in organizational competencies. [47] also insisted that flexible trainings with SDL approaches have emerged as organizational responses to meet the complex demands associated with the current workplace. In addition, through SDL, an organization could be changed to a type of learning organization[48], in which workplace learning takes place continuously[49]. Therefore, SDL can foster a learning environment within an organization, and it may enable an organization to keep up with the changes around it [38].

Ⅳ. Towards Self-Directed Learning for Worker-Initiated Labor Education: Legislation on Trade Union Education in South Korea?

1. Importance of Legislation on worker-initiated Labor Education: The Self-Directed Learning Perspective

Through this analysis of the legal system for labor education, it is apparent that legislation on worker-initiated labor education is necessary[7]. This kind of legislation can promote workers’ rights to learn and encourage workers to join in labor education in the context of SDL. Currently, some legislation related to worker-initiated labor education exists[7]. However, legislation on worker-initiated labor education remains insufficient and needs to be improved to secure the workers’ right to learn during their entire lives[20]. Therefore, itis important to suggest the following approaches with respect to money, time, and process[7].

First, in regard to the aspect of money, legislation on worker-initiated labor education was adopted partially by using the term“Self-Regulated Occupational Ability Development of Workers” under Article 21 of the Act on the Development of Occupational Abilities of Workers (2004)[7]. Also, Article 24 of the Employment Insurance Act (2005) regulates the similar content by the term “Self-Regulated Occupational Ability Development”[7]. Workers can receive direct financial support under specific conditions. In other words, these articles give workers the opportunity to receive money from the government for labor education. These articles can contribute to workers’ financial autonomy in labor education because workers can choose labor education programs without their employers’ financial support[25]. However, this legislation is not yet complete because it is not very popular in practice. This lack of popularity is because the budget for workers is significantly less than that for employers, and maximum support is limited for each individual[25].

Second, in regard to the aspect of time, legislation on worker-initiated labor education was also only partially adopted[7]. Besides the Act on the Development of Occupational Abilities of Workers (2004) and the Employment Insurance Act (2005), “Study Leaves” under Article 7 of the Lifelong Education Act (2001) could enable workers to leave their workplaces temporarily in order to learn. This article should help workers obtain their own extra time for labor education. This article contributes to the promotion of equal opportunities for labor education. However, this legislation is not effective because it is a provisional item that is rarely practiced[7].

Third, in terms of the aspect of process, legislation on worker-initiated labor education was adopted partially by using the term“Matters Subject to Resolution of Council” under Article 20 of the Act on the Promotion of Workers’ Participation and Cooperation(2001)[7]. This article encourages workers to participate in the process of labor education in the workplace. In addition, it can contribute to the promotion of democracy in labor education planning. On the other hand, this legislation is not effective because it is not always conducted in practice[7].

In summary, some partial legislation on worker-initiated labor education exists, and using this legislation may be an appropriate solution. However, these kinds of legislation do not sufficiently support worker-initiated labor education because of their incomplete and provisional contents[16]. Therefore, it is necessary to improve and revise current legislation and to introduce new legislation, such as TUE funds, paid educational leave, and individual learning accounts[25].

2. The Developmental Directions for Worker-Initiated Labor Education: The Roles of Individual Workers and Trade Unions

The revision and improvement of the legal system for labor education initiated by the individual workers is highly recommended because this can improve the workers’ right to learn and encourage them to join in SDL. Worker-initiated labor education can improve SDL, and it is one of the most critical elements that can foster adult learning. One of the goals of SDL is to promote adult learners’ capability to be self-directed learners in their learning process[27]. Moreover, SDL in the workplace should be used for labor education because it can help workers catch up with the current changes in globalization. Therefore, SDL can be applied effectively to an education-friendly workplace[50], and it can play an important role in building and maintaining this workplace[48].

In addition, TUE can be regarded as a kind of labor education initiated by the trade union, and it has not yet been legislated[6]. The lack of the legal system for TUE is a serious problem as legislation on TUE is related to the legal status of labor education itself[7]. Therefore, legislation on TUE should be considered seriously and enacted quickly[7]. The South Korean government should provide trade unions with appropriate social support.

3. Legislation on Trade Union Education to Promote Self-Directed Learning in the Workplace

As described in the introduction section, according to [1], there is a core issue regarding legislation on TUE in South Korea. Although trade unions’ main goal is not to provide education, but to defend the employees’ rights,[1] tries to enable trade unions to provide an additional service as lifelong education facilities. To develop the legal system for TUE, the government needs to establish additional educational facilities affiliated with trade unions[1]. These facilities would secure labor workers’ rights to pursue lifelong learning[2]. However, in reality, the Framework Act on Education (1997) and the Lifelong Education Act(2001) cannot be applied to TUE directly because these acts do not include TUE in any categories of lifelong education.

TUE’s importance will be increasing because the initiative of lifelong learning in the 21st century is gradually moving from employers toworkers[14][51]. Moreover, recent TUE is covering skill formation and vocational education while traditional TUE only focused on topics of trade union organizations and workers’ rights[52]. For instance, recent discussion on the Joint Union-Management Program is a partnership issue about the expansion of learning goals of TUE[6].

The necessity of legislation on TUE lies in securing workers’ rights to learn during their entire lives by expanding opportunities of lifelong learning effectively[5][7]. While there have been various types of opportunities for lifelong learning, South Korean’s participation in lifelong education is even lower than that of many Western countries[53][54]. Therefore, it is necessary to provide citizens with even more lifelong education facilities[1]. A systemic relationship between education and labor is needed, as well[2][6].

TUE deserves to be supported through legislation because the Lifelong Education Act(2001) aims to secure citizens’ rights to learn and learners’ rights to choose in order to secure opportunities for workplace learning. Legislation on TUE can expand learners’ rights to choose lifelong education facilities[1]. As trade unions are geographically accessible and psychologically comfortable in workers’ daily lives, the trade union has a crucial advantage as a lifelong education facility[5].

For TUE to succeed, it requires institutional support, which can only happen if it is legislated[1]. Administrative and financial support will improve the TUE program’s quality and instructor’s specialty[5] because TUE has difficulty with managing the educational budget and improving the learning circumstances[1]. For this reason, TUE in several foreign countries has been supported by the government with administration and finance[55].

Table 2. The Context of Legislation on Trade Union Education to Promote Self-Directed Learning in the Workplace: The Importance of and Developmental Directions for Worker-Initiated Labor Education in South Korea

V. Conclusion: Towards Self-Directed Learning in the Context of Trade Union Education

Legislation on TUE should be initiated by the workers because this can improve the workers’rights to learn, and encourage them to join in SDL. TUE is one of the most critical elements that can foster adult learning in terms of SDL[4]. Specifically, TUE as lifelong learning can improve SDL because SDL is the end as well as a means of lifelong learning[22]. Also, TUE can foster adult learning in that one of the goals of SDL is to promote adult learners’ capabilities to be self-directed learners in their learning process[27]. Moreover, SDL in the workplace should be used for TUE because SDL can help workers catch up with the current changes in globalization[56]. Therefore, TUE in the context of SDL can be understood as a powerful tool to facilitate learning organization[57]. TUE can promote workers’ self-directedness through voluntary participation in the workplace[58].

The further discussion about the relationship between SDL in the workplace and labor education in South Korea, can be specifically supported by drawing the following critical implications of legislation on TUE for policymakers and practitioners. In other words, SDL in the context of TUE will be enhanced if the following suggestions are implemented by policymakers and practitioners. First, policymakers and practitioners in the government and in organizations need to consider their roles in facilitating and leading the developmental changes in the legal system for TUE in order to improve workers’ initiative. Second, they should recognize not only the organizational but also the national support for SDL in the context of TUE to promote workers’ motivation and responsibility. Third, they should introduce current policies and programs so that the workers can take advantage of the legal system for TUE. Fourth, they should attempt to make connections between HRD and TUE in terms of worker-initiated labor education. Fifth, they should develop more appropriate policies and plans to make use of the current legal system for TUE in order to create education-friendly environments. Sixth, they should persuade their stakeholders to effectively support SDL in the context of TUE by adopting some useful policies and programs in the legal system.

In a similar vein, the discussion about the relationship between SDL in the workplace and labor education in South Korea, can be concluded by suggesting the following crucial implications of legislation on TUE for lawmakers. As the workplace should help not only develop workers’ vocational skills but also improve their sense of identity as workers and democratic citizens, SDL in the context of TUE can be supported by basic human rights, including the right to learn, which can promote human dignity and value. In this context, since national-societal level legislation can promote the participation in TUE, it may contribute to the realization of workers’ human rights by the humanization of work and education. As it is very important to develop the motivation of workers by promoting SDL [59] in the context of TUE for personal and professional development, the reformation of the legal system for TUE is necessary to support workers institutionally.

In summary, this study provided a comprehensive review on SDL in the workplace and labor education in South Korea. Futhermore, this study discussed how they relate to legislation on TUE in South Korea. With rapidly continuing changes in organizations and globalization, it is important for organizations to support workers by promoting SDL, which is more adaptable and responsive to change[25]. As it is very important to develop the motivation of workers by promoting SDL for industrial democracy through humanization of education, legislation on TUE should be considered seriously and enacted quickly in terms of social justice and equitable distribution of educational resources.